REBIRTH AND THE ECHELONS OF EXISTENCE

The Structure of the Universe

By ‘three kinds of being’, the Buddha means three universally fundamental levels of existence. Existences are further distinguished into planes, realms, and spheres, although translators and writers do not always use these terms consistently. Hereon in we shall use the terms existence, planes, sub-planes and sub-sub-planes. These aren’t elegant terms but they will make our analysis of the Buddhist universe simpler (see table 21).

The three fundamental levels of existence are distinguished by their quality of fineness. The finer the existence, the less suffering there is (MN97:30-31). The grossest is the sense-sphere existence (Kamma-loka), less gross is the fine-material existence (Rupa-loka), and then the most refined is the immaterial existence (Arupa-loka).

The grossest planes are the Worlds of Woe. Immediately above these are the good destinations, starting with the human sub-plane. Above humans are the lower gods, who are very similar to humans. They go to war (MN37), have the capacity to grieve (DN16:6.11) and listen to music (MN37:7). Higher up the spectrum, some planes of existence are so fine, the gods are immaterial, and no more substantial than a mental process¹. Some boarder on oblivion, and some are even without consciousness.

Table 21 illustrates the echelons of existence as discreet levels, but in reality the differences are not always so apparent (MN127:10). Everyone has some appreciation of this, even if it is only between the human and animal sub-planes. Qualitatively speaking, some pets have better lives than some humans, although buddhistically speaking, no one in their right mind would wish to be reborn as an animal.

Interestingly, the gods have a propensity to shine (DN19:1). The venerable Anuruddha explains that when the gods of radiance assemble together, their individual radiances become indistinguishable, as is the case when several lamps with flames of different colours and sizes, are brought together (MN127:10-11). Layman Sudatta (Anāthapindika) was reborn in the comparatively lowly Tusita heavens, but was still able to light up the Grove where the Buddha and Ānanda were staying (MN143:20). There seems to be a direct relationship between luminosity of a god, and the finesse of its existence (DN18:12-17, DN20:7-8). We will consider the physics of the lower planes more, when we look at miracles.

The Sense Sphere – Kama-loka

The Sense Sphere Existence is the grossest of the three levels of existence and consists of two planes, divided into 11 sub-planes. The four lowest sub-planes are the Worlds of Woe. These are the Hell(s), Animal Realm, Realm Of Ghosts (sometimes called the Shades), and the Titans (Asura). Were it not for the Ghost sub-plane, the sense sphere existence could be reasonably called the Material Existence.

The seven upper sub-planes of the material existence are the good destinations (despite the wars there). They start with the human sub-plane, which is the grossest of the good destinations. All planes above the human plane are considered heavenly, and their denizens godly. But a god in the Buddhist Pāli Canon is not always an entity who has power over others, but simply one living a heavenly existence. In fact, the lower heavens are more like Earth than one might first imagine:

The Thousandfold World System consists of the material existence, which includes the Sun, Earth and Moon and the Fine Material Sphere (see table 21). It is a remarkable teaching for its baring on astrobiology. It is saying the Earth, Sun and Moon are part of the Thousandfold World System, which lies within BEYOND the travelling distance of the light of our Sun and Moon. This includes the near galaxy³, which we see at night and the very worlds some of us will be reborn on. Some of these worlds may have been observed and catalogued amongst known exo-planets.

But none of the descriptions of the Thousandfold World System should be taken too literally. The number 1000 denotes an inconceivably large number, in the same way we might use the term googolplex. The enumerations of moons, suns, kings, mountains, continents and oceans form a metaphor for habitable, earth-like, conditions, harbouring life we can recognise.

Despite these Earthly conditions, the beings therein have some fundamental physical differences compared to humans and the Earth. The more refined the level of existence, the longer its gods live. The venerable Kassapa, explains to prince Pāyāsi the life spans of some gods.

One of the first things to notice is that this teaching is not from the Buddha’s mouth. Notwithstanding this, the Gods of the Thirty-three live on average the equivalent of thirty-six million Earth years⁵. This makes a considerable difference between life on Earth and the Gods of the Thirty-three.

In fact, the physics of the Gods of the Thirty-three are about as removed from the Earth, as they are from the Fine Material Sphere of the Brahma world. Kassapa explains, just as humans cannot see the Gods of the Thirty-three with the physical eye⁶, the Gods of the Thirty-three cannot see the Brahma in the fine-material plane. There was an occasion when Brahma Sanankumara, one of the five sons of the MahāBrahma, appeared to the Gods of the Thirty-three, by assuming a grosser form, because his natural appearance is not visible to their eyes (DN18.15-17).

Despite the difference in longevity between humans and the Gods of the Thirty-three, there are many similarities we can recognise. The Cūḷataṇhāsankhaya Suttaṃ tells us Sakka had palaces built, and listened to music (MN37:7). As the ruler of the Gods of the Thirty-three, he was victorious in war against the Asura (Titans). The Janavasabha Suttaṃ (DN18:13) even tells us the Asura were decreasing in number.

So, the picture drawn from above is that, in our galaxy there is a myriad of inhabitable worlds. When we look out into the night sky, we are looking at the very heavens we may be reborn into. However, the denizens of the grosser worlds cannot see those of finer worlds without use of the divine eye.

Regardless of how fine these worlds may be, the heavens are part of the conditioned universe (saṃsāra) and so ‘change takes place, transformation takes place’. That is to say, they are not eternal.

The Fine-Material Existence – Rupa-loka

The fine-material sphere is comprised of four planes, each one distinguished into three sub-planes (see table 21). All fine-material and immaterial sub-planes of existence are correlated to a level of meditational achievement. The fine-material sub-planes are described as follows.

The Lowest sub-plane of the fine-material existence is occupied by MahāBrahma’s Assembly (Brahma Parisajja). Rebirth into this sub-plane requires meditation is developed only to an inferior level of first jhānaṃ.

The middle sub-plane is occupied by the Ministers of MahāBrahma (Brahma Purohita). Rebirth into this sub-plane requires a middling development of first jhānaṃ.

In the highest sub-plane of the fine-material existence are the Mahābrahmas (Great Gods). Rebirth at this level requires a superior development of first jhāna. Bakka Brahma abides at this level⁷ (MN49:2)

Beings in the first plane of the fine-material sphere can live up to one aeon⁸.

The next plane in the fine-material existence, contains the sub-planes of the Gods Of Radiance. On the first sub-plane, abide the Gods Of Limited (Defiled) Radiance. To be reborn at this level requires an inferior development of second jhānaṃ.

On the middle sub-plane, are the Gods Of Immeasurable Radiance, and rebirth here requires a middling development of second jhānaṃ.

On the highest sub-plane, are the Gods Of Streaming Radiance, and rebirth here requires a superior development of second jhānaṃ.

The Gods Of Radiance can live up to two aeons⁹.

The next plane in the fine-material existence are the Gods Of Glory, sometimes referred to as the Auras (This English word is not to be confused with Asuras meaning Titans). On the first sub-plane are the Gods Of Limited Glory, and rebirth here requires an inferior development of third jhānaṃ.

On the second sub-plane are the Gods Of Immeasurable Glory, and rebirth here requires a middling development of third jhānaṃ.

On the third sub-plane are the Gods Of Refulgent Glory, and rebirth here requires a superior development of third jhānaṃ.

The Gods Of Glory can live up to 4 aeons.

The highest plane in the fine-material existence is a little more complex, as it contains three sub-planes, the highest of which is distinguished into five sub-sub-planes.

The lowest sub-planes contain the Gods Of Great Fruit. The middle sub-plane is the Realm Of Mindless Beings. Beings abiding in these two sub-planes are not conscious. The third, and finest, sub-plane is divided into five sub-sub-planes, consisting of, the Gods Of The Pure Abodes, the Aviha Gods (The Durable Realm), Attapa Gods (The Serene Realm), Sudassa Gods (The Beautiful Realm), Sudassi Gods (The clear-sighted Realm), Akanittha Gods (The Highest Realm). Rebirth into these five sub-sub-planes is commensurate with fourth jhānaṃ¹⁰. They are the rebirth destinations of the non-returner.

These gods can live up to 500 aeons¹¹.

The Immaterial Existence – Arupa-loka

The next fundamental level of existence is immaterial, and is comprised of four sub-planes, each one commensurate with an immaterial absorption. The gods at these levels may live for tens of thousands of aeons. Bodhisatta are not reborn into the immaterial levels of existence.

Table 24 The Echelons of Existence

Reappearance According to Purity of Consciousness

It is possible to use meditation to determine one’s reappearance in other echelons of existence, when departing this life. The Venerable Abhiya Kaccāna asked how is it that some come to be reborn amongst the sub-plane of Gods of Defiled Radiance, and some are reborn in the sub-plane of the Gods Of Immeasurable Radiance (MN127:13). Anuruddha responds by taking Kaccāna’s attention in step-wise manner through the stages of kasina meditation.

Anuruddha continued his elucidation, graduating his examples: one village … two or three villages … one major kingdom … two or three major kingdoms … an area the size of the earth bound by oceans. Kaccāna is told, “This is the cause and reason.” In other words, the level of exaltation in meditation determines why someone is reborn on a particular sub-plane. The more exalted the meditation, the more exalted the rebirth destination.

Kaccāna then asked why is it that someone is able to enjoy exalted meditation in the first place. Anuruddha gives simile, using the flame of a lamp burning impure oil and an impure wick.

Sloth and torpor, restlessness and remorse, are two of the five hindrances. This makes Kaccāna’s teaching less than entirely consistent with ideal descriptions of second jhānaṃ. All the jhāna are defined by an absence of hindrances. But in reality, the meditator will find that having gone through bodily tranquilisation, some of the hindrances still intermittently appear, although they are weak and ephemeral. This kind of interference varies during lower jhāna, and is what is referred to by inferior, middling and superior development of jhāna.

Kaccana then casts doubt on Anuruddha’s authority:

In other words, Kaccana had been wondering if Anuruddha spoke from experience, or was just repeating what he had heard. Anuruddha tells Kaccana he finds his words offensive, but he confirmed he spoke from direct experience (17).

Reappearance According to Choice

A remarkable point implied by Anuruddha’s lesson is that we can selectively target a rebirth destination by developing consciousness during the throes of death. Below the Buddha details how to consciously target a place of rebirth:

The same teaching is given to Mahānama (SN V 55:21).

The Buddha also teaches recollecting one’s own good character as part of a practice for nurturing good qualities. Whatever ‘conviction, virtues, learning, generosity and discernment’, a dying person embodied when falling away from this life, the same qualities re-arise with him in the next realm (AN11.12).

By contemplating the character of the gods in the material and fine-material sphere, one can determine where one reappears after death. This is true for anyone; not just Buddhists (SN V 55:54).

No Reappearance

The Sankhārupapatti Sutta (MN120) teaches, through the disciplines of faith, virtue, learning, generosity and wisdom, we can reappear on any sub-plane, or sub-sub-plane, in any godly existence (19-36). Despite being able to choose and target his place of rebirth, a Buddhist renunciant does not aspire to reappear anywhere, nor nowhere for that matter. Aspiring to be born on a heavenly sub-plane is known as the fifth shackle (MN16:12). His endeavours are towards the ending of all rebirth.

See table 18 for Deliverance by Mind and Deliverance by Knowledge.

In the Dhātuvibhaṅga Suttaṃ, the Buddha says, ‘On the dissolution of the body, with the ending of life, all that is felt, not being delighted in, will become cool right here (MN140:23-24)’.

Discussion

We should not think that the five disciplines lead to the heavenly planes because it pleases the gods there. The five disciplines are used to contain, and refine, how we express our energy. Buddhist thermodynamics says energy must flow, and the Pāli Canon teaches refined energy tends towards being reborn in a refined place, and gross energy in a gross place.

But for the Buddhist renunciant, the five disciplines are primarily training for meditation and ultimately liberation from all existences. To reappear nowhere requires the ability to maintain perfect equanimity throughout the throes of death, if all is to ‘become cool’. This technique we know as the apperceptive gaze. If all that the mind can bring up during the throes of death are kept cool, then the outcome should be Parinibbāna.

This is heartening for the householder. Maintaining purity of consciousness throughout the dying process will yield Parinibbāna in the last moments of life. But it would be unwise not to take the opportunity beforehand, and become adept in the apperceptive gaze and right perspective.

This possibility will prompt some householders to consider dedicating their dying months to the practice of meditation. Other things being equal, such as the responsibility of running a household handed to someone else, a supportive environment, and some previous training, permanent liberation, is realistic for a dying (ex)householder.

Last Rites of Passage

Buddhists don’t usually use the phrase last rites of passage, but if there is anything in the Buddhist canon that can be called last rites of passage, it is a guided meditation in the throes of death.

There was an occasion when Mahānama mentioned to the Buddha that he had not heard from the Buddha’s own lips how a layman should minister to a dying layman. The Buddha’s response was that a wise layman should console the dying with the Four Consolations. He then described how this should be done.

The dying layman should be reminded of his confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saṅgha. He should be told he may feel fortified by his long practice of the noble virtues that lead to concentration. He should be asked, if he is worried about any member of his family, such as his mother and father. If he is, he should be told, ‘But good sir, you are subject to death. Whether you are anxious about your mother and father or not, you will die anyway. So please abandon your anxiety over your mother and father (SNV.55:54).’ And similarly, the dying man should be asked about the rest of his family and dear ones, and accordingly reminded of the proper wisdom.

He should be asked, if he is anxious about the five chords of human pleasure, and whether he harbours any. He should be reminded that celestial sensual pleasure is more sublime than human sensual pleasure, and told to focus on the Four Great Kings. Once his mind is focused on the Four Great Kings, similarly, he should be told that the adjacent Tāvatiṃsa devas (Gods of the Thirty-three) are yet more sublime, and so he should focus on the Tāvatiṃsa devas. In this graduated manner, the dying layman is guided through all the sub-planes of the lower gods and Brahma loka.

Buddhist last rites are an affirmation of cosmology and right perspective, and an example of how important perspective and volition are.

But the contents of a last rite of passage varies, depending on whether the person is a bhikkhu, a layman, or Brahmin. The above example was for the Buddhist layman, and Brahmin, whose destinations are the heavens. To understand why a Buddhist layman is directed towards heaven, we should recall, the Buddha taught Vaccha that he was aware of no householder who attained Nibbāna without first abandoning the fetter of householdship (MN71:11-12).

This does not mean the householder/layman is not a noble being, destined for Nibbāna in a subsequent life. Nor does it mean a dying layman cannot be given the same last rites of passage as a bhikkhu. It is a question of whether or not a dying person has had the training to receive higher Dhamma.

We will now look at several documented instances in the Pāli Canon of bhikkhus who ministered to the dying.

Sudatta Receives Last Rites

Chief disciple Sāriputta delivered the last rites of passage to the respected layman Sudatta, a merchant and generous patron to the Saṅgha¹². He is also referred to in the discourses as Anāthapiṇḍika¹³, a name which means philanthropist. Anāthapiṇḍika was neither bhikkhu nor ordinary householder, but an upāsako¹⁴. He dressed in white to denote celibacy, and took on more precepts than the householder but not as many as a bhikkhu. Celibate laity dressing in white was a common practice that predates Buddhism but which fits into the Buddhist scheme of things.

Anāthapiṇḍika was in his final hours of life, when he instructed a messenger to go and pay respects first to the Buddha, then to Sāriputta, and request that Sāriputta visits him out of compassion. Both Sāriputta and Ānanda attended and found Anāthapindika in serious pain and worsening. Sāriputta gave Anāthapindika a comprehensive guided contemplation, not on the structure of the godly planes, as one might expect for laity, but on impermanence.

The above taught Anāthapiṇḍika not to indulge anything arising from the internal bases, as they will impinge upon, and adulterate, an otherwise pure consciousness.

Next Sāriputta teaches the very same thing in the context of the six external bases.

Next Sāriputta teaches Anāthapiṇḍika the same thing but in the context of the six classes of consciousness.

Next Sāriputta teaches Anāthapiṇḍika the same thing but in the context of the six classes of contact.

Next Sāriputta teaches Anāthapiṇḍika the same thing but in the context of classes of feeling.

Next Sāriputta teaches Anāthapiṇḍika the same thing but in the context of the six elements.

Next Sāriputta teaches Anāthapiṇḍika the same thing but in the context of the aggregate of five.

Next Sāriputta teaches Anāthapiṇḍika the same thing but in the context of the immaterial absorptions.

At this point Sudatta began to weep.

Sāriputta and Ānanda left, and soon after Anāthapiṇḍika died and reappeared in the Tusita Heavens. That evening, as the Buddha and Ānanda sat in Jeta’s Grove, a young god of beautiful appearance, illuminated the whole grove, and addressed the Buddha with a stanza. It extolled the Buddha’s teaching as unsurpassed, and then it acknowledged Sāriputta’s attainment as unsurpassable. The Buddha approved of the stanza and the young god disappeared. Ānanda exclaimed that the young god was surely Anāthapindika. The Buddha replied, “Good, good, Ānanda! As far as reasoning goes you have drawn the right conclusion. That young god was Anāthapindika, no one else (MN143:20).”

Discussion

Between chief disciple Sāriputta and upāsako Anāthapiṇḍika, a new precedent was set. We learn that higher Dhamma was not being taught to upāsakos or laity, yet Sāriputta taught the higher Dhamma of impermanence, instead of the brahma viharas, as the Buddha commended to Mahānāma.

So why would this be? Firstly, Mahānāma would not be aware of any higher Dhamma. Secondly, Sāriputta on the other hand did, and knew Anāthapiṇḍika did not aspire to the Brahmin ideal of being born in the retinue of MahāBrahma, but sort Nibbāna. Anāthapiṇḍika was an upāsako. He dressed in white to denote celibacy and his commitment to liberate himself. Sāriputta clearly thought layman Anāthapiṇḍika’s efforts were best placed in Vipassanā, and making things cool in the throes of death. Being in the throes of death is a unique moment. If a dying householder/upāsako has taken time out to learn that which is difficult to understand, and train in that which is difficult to attain, it would be a missed opportunity not to seize the moment. After all, at this juncture, householdership is spent.

It is interesting that Ānanda called the young god Anāthapindika. But why did the Buddha qualify Ānanda by saying his reasoning was correct? This suggests there that something else to be considered. I suggest, Ānanda’s ‘reasoning’ was correct, as the young god ‘was’ once Anāthapiṇḍika. Ānanda’s reasoning would have been incorrect to think of the young god as still being Anāthapiṇḍika¹⁵.

We might think the two are the same, as the young god clearly remembered being Anāthapiṇḍika. But we should recall the Buddha’s lesson to Sati son of a fisherman, where he taught that consciousness is dependent on conditions (Chapter 10 subtitle Self-Identity Views/Uncertainty).

Brahmin Dhānañjāni Receives Last Rites

Sāriputta also gave last rites to the dying Brahmin Dhānañjāni (MN97:30). As Dhānañjāni lay on his deathbed, he sent a messenger to ask Sāriputta to attend out of compassion. Sāriputta obliged. Because Dhānañjāni was a brahmin, his aspiration was not to attain PariNibbāna, but to be reborn in the highest of the Brahma abodes, with the MahāBrahmā.

Sāriputta started by questioning Dhānañjāni on his knowledge of the sense sphere existence and fine-material existence. He asks, which is better, the sub-plane of Animals or sub-plane of Ghosts? He answered correctly by saying the sub-plane of Ghosts. Sāriputta asks, which is the better to live in, the sub-plane of Ghosts or sub-plane of Humans? He answers correctly, saying the sub-plane of Humans. And likewise, Sāriputta guided Dhānañjāni stepwise through all the sub-planes of the material sphere. However, his guided contemplation did not go through all three sub-plane in the Brahma loka. It merely acknowledged that the Brahma lokas were better than the previous sub-planes. Instead, Sāriputta gave Dhānañjāni four guided meditations of the final stage, from each of the four Brahma Viharas. Having done this, Sāriputta left, and soon afterwards Dhānañjāni died. The Buddha, due to his psychic powers, was aware that the procedure had been less than ideal. He told the bhikkhus with him that Sāriputta had left while there was still work to be done, as Dhānañjāni had reappeared at the lowest level on the Brahma sub-planes. On his return, the Buddha asked Sāriputta why he left so early. Sāriputta said he thought he had done all that was necessary. The Buddha told him Dhānañjāni had reappeared in the lowest level on the Brahma sub-planes.

Discussion

One might wonder why Sāriputta gave Dhānañjāni four guided meditations from the final stage of the immeasurable Deliverance Of Mind stage (Brahma Vihāra). Like any samadhi meditation, it can be used to bring about superior third jhānaṃ, which is commensurate with the Beautiful Black Gods, and far more than Dhānañjāni needed (see table 21 The Echelons of Existence). Dhānañjāni sort rebirth in the highest level of the Brahma Loka, which requires only superior first jhānaṃ. Perhaps it would have been better if Sāriputta’s stepwise questioning had included the three levels of the Brahma planes, instead of the final stage of the four Brahmā vihāra.

There is another curiosity arising from what we have studied. Brahmin Dhānañjāni was not a noble being yet was born in a higher, more refined sub-plane than upāsako Anāthapiṇḍika, who was a noble being. The reason for this can be explained by their different spiritual aspirations. Anāthapiṇḍika was a noble being and would continue his work towards Nibbāna in the Tusita heavens for a limited period as a once returner. But Dhānañjāni aspired to reside in the realms of the Mahābrahma, where he believed he would enjoy Moksha/Mukti/Krisna-consciousness. This is God-Consciousness. It is synonymity with the MahāBrahma and the ultimate protection from suffering for eternity. Brahmins didn’t accept the Buddha’s teaching that all is transient.

Noble beings following the Buddha’s prescription do not aspire towards any type of existence. They are born in the Sugati, or the Pure Abodes. The Pure Abodes however are much more refined than the Sugati and Brahma Loka. This raises a question about how Noble beings in the Pure Abodes spend their days. Just what is it that inspires them to maintain their practice?

Last Rites for Channa and Vakkali

There was an occasion when Sāriputta and Cunda went to see the dying Venerable Channa who warned them that he was going to dispatch himself with a knife in due course due to unbearable pain (MN144:7). They gave Channa a guided meditation on impermanence and the merit of non-reappearance and then left. Channa then slit his own throat with a knife. The Buddha later said Channa had died blamelessly and did not reappear anywhere.

The venerable Vakkali received last rites from the Buddha. That is, at least indirectly, as tradition maintains two devatas (earth spirits) were used to convey the Buddha’s teaching on impermanence. Like Channa, Vakkali was also in a lot of pain, and also took his own life by slitting his throat. Vakkali was not reborn anywhere but became fully liberated (SN III 22:87).

Discussion

Euthanasia was not uncommon in ancient India. Even so, we should understand that Channa and Vakkali were likely warrior caste, of the Sakyan clan, who had a reputation for being exceptionally hard men. The Sakyans are described as being as “strong as Teak (DN3:1.15)”. The Pāli word Saka means Teak, which is a very hard wood.

It should be understood that self-termination is not part of the Buddha-Dhamma, although it was not outlawed. Buddhist renunciative practice is about the permanent ending of suffering, to which all else is secondary. It should be noted however that both of the above examples were self-administered (as distinct from someone else’s volition), and both attained permanent liberation. They were both confident of their mastery over their own consciousness, and were fully aware of what, and why, they did what they did. Both were confident they would remain self-transcended, throughout the death process. Thus, both can be buddhistically described as dying blamelessly¹⁶ (MN144:13).

Who can blame them, anyway?

Worlds Of Woe – Hell

Buddhist texts often write of Hell, when in fact there are several hells described in the Pāli Canon¹⁷.

The Buddha then asked the bhikkhus to “suppose” a robber had been caught and hauled up in front of a king for judgement (8). The king orders the man to be pierced by a hundred spears in the morning. This is duly done and in the afternoon the king enquires after the robber. He is told the man is still alive. The king orders the man to be struck by another hundred spears at noon. And, for a second time, the robber continues to live. The king orders the same punishment to be repeated in the evening. And, again the robber continues to live.

Moving on from the above supposition, the Buddha then gives examples of punishment in hell.

He says the wardens of hell drive red hot stakes through the man’s hands, feet and belly (10). Next, the wardens of hell throw him to the ground and pare him with axes (11). Next, the wardens of hell hang him from his feet and pare him with adezes¹⁸ (12). Next, the wardens of hell harness him to a chariot and drag him back and forth over burning, blazing, glowing ground (13). Next, the wardens of hell make him climb up and down a great mound of coals that are burning, blazing, and glowing (14). Next, the wardens of hell hang him upside down and plunge him into a red hot cauldron. He is cooked in a swirl of froth, and sired up and down and across (15). Next, the wardens of hell throw him into the Great Hell. This is an iron room, cubed in shape, with sides of one hundred leagues, and closed off in all directions, except for four doors on each side. The whole structure is heated until it glows (16). But, the man cannot die until the demerit that took him there runs its course (10-15).

In the Devadūta discourse (MN130), the Buddha says he actually witnessed the above hell. He teaches that just as clearly as a man with good eyesight, looking at two houses, watching people come and go, so too, he saw with his divine vision, beings passing through the cycle of birth and death, inferior and superior, fair and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate (2). The Buddha then describes hell(s) in considerably more detail.

He tells the bhikkhus that when a man appears in Hell the wardens seize him by the arm and present him to (god) king Yāma. They announce the allegations against the man, and then wait upon the kings response.

King Yāma then cross-examines him about a second divine messenger.

The King continues his interrogation, asking the man if he has seen the third divine messenger, an afflicted adult, suffering, gravely ill, lying fouled in his on excrement and urine, and who has to be physically assisted (6). King Yāma asks if he has seen the fourth divine messenger, a robber, caught and subjected to many kinds of tortures, such as flogging and beheading (7). And lastly, he asks the man if he has seen a fifth divine messenger, which is a corpse, laying dead for a day, two days, three days, bloated, livid, and oozing with matter (8). To each question, the man submitted the same responses.

Despite the defendant’s honesty, there is no record of mitigation. The God-King Yāma finds the man culpable of negligence. The wardens then take the man and torture him with red-hot stakes, as described above, before taking him to the Great Hell.

The Great Hell is the sealed iron room. In this discourse, we are told its range is a ‘full hundred leagues’, with an iron roof and floor (16). Flames jet out from the four walls, and reach the opposite walls: south wall to north wall, and north wall to south, and west to east, and east to west wall. This iron glows hot and the man feels the agony of this, and yet he does not die while ever his demerit is not spent. Eventually, the time arrives at the end of a long period when the eastern door opens. The man sprints towards it. As he does so, his feet start to burn away, outer skin, inner skin, muscles, sinews, and bones turn to smoke. This is true even when his feet are not touching the ground (17-18). It takes a time for him to reach the door¹⁹, but upon reaching the exit, the door closes. The man feels racking, piercing feelings, and yet he does not die while ever his demerit is still not spent. The man tries to escape via the western, northern, and southern doors, but with the same vane outcome. Eventually, the eastern door opens again, and undergoing the same sufferings and agonies as previously, the man finally makes his exit (19). But relief, if any, is short lived. He simply moves out of the Great Hell and into the Hell Of Excrement. In the excrement are needle-mouthed creatures, which bore through his skin into the bone and marrow. He feels painful racking feelings, but there is no respite from this suffering while ever his demerit is still not spent (20).

Next, he falls into the Hell of Hot Embers, which is immediately adjacent to the Hell Of Excrement. He feels painful racking feelings, but there is no respite from suffering while ever his demerit is still unspent (21).

Immediately adjacent is the Wood Of Simbali Trees. Here the trees grow a league high and bristle with thorns six finger-breaths long, burning, blazing and glowing. The wardens make him climb up and down those trees. He feels painful racking feelings. Yet he does not die until his demerit is exhausted (22).

Immediately adjacent is the Wood Of Sword-leaf Trees. The leaves are stirred by wind and they cut a man’s hands, feet, ears, and nose. He feels painful racking feelings. Yet he does not die until his demerit is exhausted (23).

Immediately adjacent is the great river of caustic water, which he falls into. He is swept downstream and even up stream. He feels painful racking feelings. Yet he does not die until his demerit is exhausted (24).

The wardens pull him out with a hook and ask, “Good man what do you want?” He says, “I am hungry, venerable sirs.” Then the wardens prise open his mouth with red-hot iron tongs, which are burning blazing and glowing, and then they pour into his mouth molten copper, blazing, burning and glowing. Yet he does not die until his demerit is exhausted (25).

Next, the wardens ask, “Good man what do you want?” He says, “I am thirsty, venerable sirs.” Then the wardens prise open his mouth with red-hot tongs, burning blazing and glowing, and they pour into his mouth a molten copper, blazing, burning and glowing. It burns his mouth, throat, stomach, and passes into his intestine and mesentery. He feels painful racking feelings. Yet he does not die until his demerit is exhausted (26).

The wardens then throw him back into the Great Hell (27).

Discussion

Let us investigate the descriptions of the hells for reasonableness on scientific and doctrinal grounds.

Even though the descriptions of hell are a challenge of faith, we should not entirely dismiss the possibility of hellish places of rebirth. Most people believe there is life after death, in which case, it is worthwhile asking, what form life will take there. Whatever form it takes, a credible afterlife has to be physically and, or mentally sensible. Some sensible questions about the next world are, will there be cause and effect at the physical level, such as gravity, electricity and nuclear power? Will there be suffering and joy? Will we eat, sleep, defecate, bathe, have sex? Will life be competitive? Will we have to go to work? Will there be hierarchy, authority and punishment? Without these elements, there is little left to comprehend, let alone believe. Without some answers to these questions, our belief in an afterlife is no better than notional.

Whether or not the Hell(s) are part of the Thousandfold World System, lying within the travelling distance of the light from our Sun and Moon, Buddhist Cosmology places them in the same sense sphere as the Earth and lower heavens (Kama Loka). We can expect therefore some similarities between the physics across the Kama Loka. Physicists work on the basis that there are no privileged frames of reference. By this, they mean there are some physical principles, which are fundamental throughout the universe. For example, pure water freezes at zero degrees centigrade at one atmosphere of pressure. The speed of light is constant in a constant medium. Because there are no privileged frames of reference, then this is true throughout the universe. This is reasonable, if we are talking about the same universe.

But the near Cosmos (The Thousand Fold System), as described in the Pāli Canon, presents us with some fundamentally different physics, to the Earth’s. The denizens of hell do not necessarily die from injury (MN50:22) and the lower gods live far longer than the flesh and blood beings of Earth.

So just how reasonable are the sufferings of the hells? Let’s compare them with suffering on Earth, and produce some measure of credibility. We know that war is replete with atrocities, such as mass losses of life, torture and inequity. The history of religion is no different. The Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición 1492 -1501 (Spanish Inquisition), the witch hunts of early modern Europe, militant Islam and Sharia law, are culpable of avoidable human slaughter. The punitive tariff in regular Sharia law varies between countries but can include: stoning, amputation of fingers, hands, feet, nose, eyes and head, lynching, crushing (by toppled wall), and throwing people off the highest perch (buildings and cliffs). Fascism and communism, have also demonstrated no shortage of people ready to perpetrate the most heinous of acts in the name of a higher purpose and authority.

In addition to these manmade sufferings, there are natural ones. There are illnesses that cause long-term suffering, flesh-burrowing parasites, flesh-eating bacteria, and plants that emit toxins and acids.

On balance then, the hellish sufferings of the Bālāpaṇḍita and Devadūta discourses are mostly reality on Earth, and therefore cannot be entirely dismissed as part of an afterlife. The differences between Earth and hell(s) that attract questions are the longevity of life and not being able to die from injury.

This is a good place to point out that rebirth is not necessarily reincarnation. An easy way to remember the difference is that the syllable ‘carn’, comes from carnal meaning flesh. Not all beings reincarnate, that is, are reborn with a fleshy body. Some are reborn as fine material or even immaterial beings.

Let’s look at some more issues with the above two hellish teachings. Yāma is in fact a Vedic God of Death²⁰, usually depicted with blue skin and several pairs of arms. He holds a club and a noose and rides an ox. His ancestry is found in the Upanishads, where he is one of five gods. Yama is the god of the southern quarter (area), the Sun is the god of the eastern quarter, Varuṇa is the god of the western quarter, the Moon is the god of the northern quarter, and fire is the god of the fixed quarter (the Zenith) (Brhādaraṇyaka 3.9.21). The Buddhist canon has four Yama god-kings, one at each of the four gates of hell²¹, but they also reside in the Sugati. Presenting only one Yama god in the Bālāpaṇḍita and Devadūta discourses makes the Buddhist death process appear all the more similar to the judgemental Abrahamic god, who also puts us on trial.

But the concept of a judgemental god does not tally with sensible thinking. Why would the Yama God want to spend the aeon subjecting people to misery? And, where does he find the time to see everyone? Like the perverse Abrahamic god, Yama has little regard for the principle of proportionality when administering punishment; just what could a robber steal to warrant such inordinate treatment as the hells?

A query must be raised about the number of divine messengers²². There are four divine messengers in the Biography of Siddhatta Gotama; an old man, a sick man, a dead man and a renunciant (see Introduction). But king Yama cites five messengers: a vulnerable baby, an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a robber.

The robber messenger certainly adds to the need for a ruthless and punitive god and thereby mirrors biblical teaching.

Not only does a judgemental god give the Pāli Canon more affinity with the Bible, it also makes Buddhism all the more appealing to the Brahmin, who already accepts the concept of a Yama god.

Another serious issue from the above is purification by suffering, which is not a Buddhist teaching. The concept of being purified of dark kamma by undergoing a period of suffering in hell (purgation), is inconsistent with the Mahāsaccaka discourse. This explicitly teaches struggle and pain alone do not bring enlightenment. Only withdrawal from delighting in the sensuous (which may or may not be painful) can purify. Also, the Introduction of the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Suttaṃ states there is only one way to purification and that is through the four foundations of mindfulness²³.

Purification by suffering is not a biblical teaching either. Obeisance to God is enough to get into the Eternal City. Purgation was inducted into the church around the eleventh century²⁴. It taught there is a place called Purgatory. It is an intermediate place between heaven and hell, where suffering can make the difference between entering the Eternal City or not. Purgatory is also not consistent with the book of Revelations, which says, after death everyone lies in a slumber to be awoken on judgement day.

Some churches still prescribe acts of penitence as a purgative. These usually take the form of a set of prayers, prescribed by a priest after confession. Anciently, there were more serious forms of penitence, such as extreme fasting and self-flagellation²⁵.

The inclusion of purification by suffering in the Pāli Canon suggests it was still being revised well after the Buddha’s death²⁶.

Eternal hell does not exist for Buddhists, Jews and Christians, although Islam teaches it does. The Bible threatens cowards traitors, perverts, murderers, the immoral, magicians, idolaters and liars with death in lake of sulphur (the ‘second death²⁷’ Rev20:13-14, Rev21:8). Only the Devil, the Beast and the false prophet will suffer fire and sulphur forever (Rev20:10).

So we see, that after subtracting the theatre used to convey the moral, we find that what started as an unreasonable faith teaching of hell(s), is not entirely unreasonable for those who believe in an after-life. Taken as parable, the Bālāpaṇḍita and Devadūta discourses are partially, reasonable faith teachings. They teach there may be suffering in future lives, and that there is a principle of moral cause and effect working universally. We therefore behave mindlessly at our peril.

By contrast, the Abrahamic paradigm, attributes our comeuppance to God, who requires our deference if we wish to continue to live.

Whatever we choose to believe, for the sake of our integrity, we need to be clear about what and why we believe. In the very least, know that we don’t know why we believe what we do.

Dhānañjāni Gets A Warning MN97

Whilst wandering in the Southern Hills with a large retinue of bhikkhus, the Venerable Sāriputta encountered a bhikkhu who had spent the rainy seasons in Rajagaha. This was the very place where the Buddha had also sojourned the rainy season. Sāriputta asked after the Blessed One, and then the Saṅgha, and then he enquired after a certain brahmin Dhānañjāni, who lived at the Taṇdulapāla Gates. Sāriputta heard how the layman Dhānañjāni had become negligent by turning to unskilful ways to support his life.

He had developed a scam whereby he procured goods under false pretences. He claimed before brahmin householders that he required goods in the name of the king, and before the king, he claimed he required goods for brahmin householders. But, in both cases Dhānañjāni was the beneficiary. His wife, who had faith, and who came from a clan with faith, had died. Since then, Dhānañjāni had taken a wife without faith, from a clan that did not have faith.

Sāriputta left the retinue of bhikkhus he was with and wandered in stages towards Rajagaha, where he met up with Dhānañjāni. Sāriputta asked if he was diligent in his layman’s practice. Dhānañjāni responded with a question of his own. How could he be diligent with parents, a wife, children, slaves, servants and workers to look after, and then there are duties towards friends, companions, kinsmen, relatives, guests, departed ancestors, deities and kings, as well as to himself?

Sāriputta then began his interrogation. He started by asking Dhānañjāni to suppose that someone was dragged off by the wardens of hell, for behaving outside of the Dhamma-Discipline. Did he think that such a person could be excused his unrighteous behaviour by pleading he did what he did for his parent’s sake? And would his parents be able to free him by pleading with the warden “it was for our sake?” Dhānañjāni says such pleading would not be successful. Sāriputta underlines his point by asking the same two questions for each of the above mentioned beneficiaries: wife, children, slaves, servants, workers, friends, companions, kinsmen, relatives, guests, departed ancestors, deities and kings and Dhānañjāni himself. Dhānañjāni gives the same reply each time. Sāriputta then asks the same questions but phrased in the positive. “What do you think is better Dhānañjāni? Who is the better, one who for the sake of his parents behaves contrary to the Dhamma, or one, who for the sake of his parents, behaves righteously according to the Dhamma?” Dhānañjāni says, “one who for the sake of his parents behaves righteously according to the Dhamma.” And again, Sāriputta underlines the point by asking the same questions for each beneficiary, and Dhānañjāni gives the same response. Sāriputta reminded Dhānañjāni there was gainful and ethical work to be found (16). Dhānañjāni delighted by Sāriputta’s words then left.

Discussion

Dhānañjāni is an example of many who had faith in the efficacy of the Buddha’s teaching but was not seeking Nibbāna (MN97:30-38). As a brahmin he was seeking rebirth amongst the Brahma Retinue. Brahmins, like Buddhists, believe that attenuating and refining one’s grosser energies over the long term, secures rebirth in a finer existence.

But, there is an issue arising here. Brahmins believe their god, MahāBrahma, is eternal. Yet, when bhikkhu Sati, son of a fisherman, also held an eternalistic view, he was told he had done himself great harm. So, why don’t Brahmins do themselves great harm? Perhaps they do, but not immediately. By spurning the opportunity of realising Nibbāna, Dhānañjāni’s sojourn in heaven will end with rebirth in a world of woe; not because there was anything personal between him and the Buddha, but because all compounded things are transient, and that alone makes life indivisible from suffering (see below, Most Are Reborn In A World Of Woe).

It is interesting that Sāriputta did not attempt to convert Dhānañjāni. But then, telling someone their core belief will terminate with a world of woe would have been particularly difficult to support, when the way of the renunciant is so arduous. The fact is, the renunciant’s paradigm does not have to be fully appreciated by everyone who benefits from it.

How To Go To Hell

Some views are so pernicious they lead to hell.

In the above teaching we can identify three hellishly pernicious views. There is denying the recluse Gotama the Buddha experienced superhuman meditation, denying his knowledge and vision is worthy of noble ones, and asserting he derives his teaching exclusively from reasoning.

Discussion

But how could any of the above lead so assuredly to the hells? One might expect these terms from an angry and lonely god, but the Buddha never claimed to be anything other than mortal.

There are two threads of logic to consider here that are typical of the schismatic Pāli Canon. One teaching is practical and characteristic of early Buddhism and the other is of the later, fantastical Mahayana.

Based on the logic of the mahayanism of the Buddhist Eucharist; to reject the Buddha in person is to also reject the Dhamma, and therefore to preclude oneself the opportunity of Parinibbāna (and so, therefore, suffer the vicissitudes of fate). The other is the logic is from early Buddhist empiricism which says we have no need to even look at the Buddha. Indeed, he taught the unlovely practices. The dying Venerable Vakkali, said to the Buddha: “For a long time venerable sir, I have wanted to come to see the blessed one …”, the Buddha replied, “Enough, Vakkali! Why do you want to see this foul body? One who sees the Dhamma sees me; one who sees me sees the Dhamma (SN III 22.87).” It is even possible to realise Nobility, without even being a disciple of the Buddha (DN16:5.27).

The Dhamma is primary in importance. Those who would know the Buddha should realise the Dhamma.

Venerable Aṅgulimāla Avoids Hell

The following story is a lesson in how to avoid hell. Ahiṃsaka was the son a Brahmin priest and for a period was a brilliant and committed martial arts student. An envious co-student besmirched him, by lying to the principle of the college. He alleged Ahiṃsaka and the principle’s wife were having illicit liaisons. The principle believed this and contrived a plan to take revenge. Knowing Ahiṃsaka was passionately committed to a successful graduation, he required him to perform an extra task in order to earn his graduation. He asked Ahiṃsaka to cut off a finger from the right hand of a thousand people by way of an honorarium. Ahiṃsaka ruthlessly set about this task, making a habit of wearing his victims’ fingers around his neck. He soon became known as Aṅgulimāla (anguli = fingers + mālā = garland).

Aṅgulimāla was about to acquire his 1000th finger, from his mother no less, when he saw the Buddha walking in the distance. The Buddha had been warned he was in Aṅgulimāla’s territory, but chose to ignore this. He went specifically with a view to meeting Aṅgulimāla, who he knew had enough supporting conditions to become an Arahant. Their encounter proved miraculous, in more ways than one. Seeing the Buddha moving gracefully along in the distance, Aṅgulimāla set off in pursuit, repeatedly quickened his pace. But, he found he could not catch the Buddha, even though the Buddha all the while walked at his usual serene pace. Eventually, Aṅgulimāla became overawed and cried out “Stop recluse stop recluse”. To which the Buddha replied, “I have stopped.” Aṅgulimāla swiftly contemplated this cryptic response and realised his folly and fortune. He uttered the following verse.

Wandering by stages, the Buddha returned to the territory of King Pasenadi of Kosala, with Aṅgulimāla as his attendant. News spread to the King that Aṅgulimāla was in his realm, and so he set out with a posse of men, as far as the road went, and then by foot, until they met with the Buddha. They paid reverential salutations to the Buddha, who enquired after the King’s purpose. The king said he was looking for the bandit Aṅgulimāla. Minding the potential repercussions of this, the Buddha asked the King how would he treat Aṅgulimāla, if he were to see him with a shaved head, wearing saffron robes, and having become chaste, and virtuous of character? The king replied that he would pay him the traditional regards one does of a bhikkhu, such as homage and providing protection. The Buddha then extended an arm by way of indication and said, “Great King, this is Aṅgulimāla.” The King had quite a start, but was true to his word, and told Aṅgulimāla he may rest content.

Despite the Venerable Aṅgulimāla’s new life, all did not go without incident for him. One morning he went for alms round and was seriously assaulted with clods of earth, sticks and broken pottery. He returned weeping, with bleeding head wounds, his begging bowl broken, and his robes torn. He turned to the Buddha who gave him the following advice.

Aṅgulimāla did take it like a bhikkhu, and whilst meditating in solitude, he made the ultimate escape.

Discussion

There is something of the fabulous about the above, which we need to investigate. Some renderings of this story say Aṅgulimāla also murdered his victims, although losing a finger does not necessarily result in death. It would take complications to set in before this happened.

If he acquired one finger per day, it would have taken him just over two and half years to collect 999. A bone-dry finger weighs around 10 grams, so a thousand would weigh in at around 10 kilograms (22 Lbs). Some depictions portray him wearing these fingers around his neck, as a decorative garland. This would have been unlikely, as 22 Lbs is a heck of a weight to carry all the time, especially around the neck. Also, such a weight would require a very strong leather pouch, and a hefty strap, as desiccated fingers will not remain secure on a piece of chord for long.

But there is a practical teaching here. Even having committed mass murder, and having thought the unthinkable, such as killing the Buddha, and with a stay in hell pending, he was still able to realise Nibbāna. This teaching not only short-circuits the idea of having to face a judgemental god, but tells us that armed with the right insight, and resolve, it is possible to escape saṃsāra, regardless of one’s past.

There is also a miracle in this teaching, which we will evaluate along with others in the next chapter.

Devadatta Does Not Avoid Hell

Devadatta was a cousin of the Buddha, and they knew each other as children. Years later, Devadatta²⁸ took ordination in the Buddha’s discipline, and proved uniquely troublesome. He tried to usurp leadership of the Saṅgha, first by stealth and then by violence. He began by asking the Buddha to step up the rigor of the bhikkhus practices. He proposed:

• Monks should dwell all their lives in the forest.
• Monks should accept no invitations to meals, but live entirely on alms obtained by begging.
• Monks should wear only robes made of discarded rags and accept no robes from the laity.
• Monks should dwell at the foot of a tree and not under a roof.
• Monks should abstain completely from fish and flesh.

Whilst Devadatta’s suggestions don’t break any precepts, they increase the rigor of an already demanding practice. The Buddha refused to make these suggestions compulsory, but nor did he outlaw them. He left the initiative with individual monks.

Commentaries vary over the precise details of what happened next. The understanding I have been able to gather is that Devadatta seized the moment, and used the Buddha’s response to spread the allegation that the Buddha had become luxurious. For a while, he succeeded in gathering a following of new and old bhikkhus. But thanks to the eloquent intervention of the venerables Moggallāna and Sāriputa, most were persuaded to defer to the Tathagata’s wisdom.

Devadatta then employed archers to assassinate the Buddha. But, the first archer lost his will, simply upon seeing the elegant presence of the Buddha. He then listened to the Buddha teach, and took refuge in the Dhamma-discipline. In the meantime, the other archers wearied and departed.

Devadatta then made several attempts of his own to assassinate the Buddha. On one occasion, he rolled a large boulder down a hillside towards the Buddha. The boulder shattered, and some rocky shards impacted on the Buddha’s foot, causing some bleeding.

On another occasion, Devadatta got an elephant drunk, and after frightening it, let it loose to rampage down a narrow street through which the Buddha was walking. The Buddha becalmed the elephant with love.

The Buddha predicted Devadatta would go to hell for the rest of the aeon (MN58:3). Commentaries say Davadatta later regretted his actions, and in his final hours of life set out to find the Buddha and express his remorse. But, he was too late, and he died along the way.

Discussion

The above teachings contain some miracles the scientific minded will rightly find difficult to accept. Fortunately, to help deal with this, we can consult the Kevaddha Suttaṃ, which contains the criteria the Buddha used to describe what is acceptable as a Buddhist miracle. We will study this discourse and miracles in the next chapter.

World Of Woe - Animal Realm

We learned from the last rites that the sub-plane of animals is a better place to live than hell, but not as good as the sub-plane of Ghosts.

In the Bālāpaṇḍita discourse (MN129), the Buddha distinguishes five groups of animal, what they feed on, and their birth medium. The table below summaries it, although it is a somewhat fragmented presentation.

Clearly, Bālāpaṇḍita discourse is not meant to be an exhaustive lesson in biology, and one wonders what relevance it has, not just in a practical renunciative teaching, but even as a faith teaching. The discourse also teaches that those who behave like animals, that is, who delight in tastes and are evil, reappear in the company of animals.

A very important point to understand about the animal sub-plane is that it is particularly difficult to get out of. To make this point, the Buddha gave the simile of a blind turtle (23). He asked a group of bhikkhus to suppose a man takes a wooden yoke and throws it into the sea, while the wind blows it about in all directions. A blind turtle surfaces once at the end of each century. What is the likelihood of the turtle being able to put its head through the hole in the yoke? A monk replied, saying that it is not impossible. So too, replies the Buddha, are the chances of getting out of the animal realm. He explains that the reason for such difficulty is that “there is no practicing the Dhamma there, no practising of what is righteous, no doing of what is wholesome, no performance of merit. There mutual devouring prevails, and the slaughter of the weak (24).” Those that do get out, and are reborn as a human, are born socially low caste, and sickly, and lacking in ethical behaviour. He describes low caste as hunters, bamboo-workers, cartwrights, outcastes and scavengers. Such a human is ugly unsightly and misshapen. His family will have difficulty surviving. His likely destination after being a human is one of the worlds of woe (25).

The Buddha gave a simile to underline how reckless he considered behaviour that leads to worlds of woe. If a gambler on his very first throw of a dice loses his child, and wife, and all his property, and also ends up in bondage himself, this would be negligible compared to the fool who misconducts himself, and reappears in a state of deprivation, unhappy destination, perdition and even hell (26).

Discussion

In principle, the above is saying that the energies we have cultivated determine the nature of our subsequent existences. That is, good begets good, and evil begets evil. But life is rarely so simple. The Buddha did not see the caste system and the law of kamma with the fatalism that Brahmins did. The Vedic system expected everyone to accept their place in society, as this was determined by one’s kamma, and therefore one should accept one’s lot as ethically as possible. Buddhist in the other hand believe there is self-determination. With an insightful and determined effort the cosmos can be navigated, and escape from existence is possible. Many low caste people became bhikkhus and even liberated. The Buddha taught merit could be earned irrespective of caste.

Parabolically speaking, the above teaching affirms the law of kamma and that there are divers echelons of existence.

World Of Woe – Peta (Ghosts)

The sub-plane of Ghosts is a better place to live than the animal sub-plane, but not better than the Titan sub-plane.

The most elaborative information on ghosts in the Pāli Canon comes not from the Buddha but the Petavatthu, the seventh book of the Khuddaka Nikāya, written by Dhammapāla , some centuries after the Buddha’s death. This of course immediately raises questions. Why did the Buddha not provide these details himself? And, where did Dhammapāla get his information? Why should a Buddhist defer to what Dhammapāla has to say?

The Khuddaka says ghosts are born into one of four types of uncomfortable conditions and because of this, are often described as hungry ghosts.

• Those who suffer from severe burning.
• Those who suffer from unquenchable thirst.
• Those who struggle for survival.
• Those who depend on the meritorious deeds of others to get rid of their sufferings.

It has to be said, based on the above descriptions, it is difficult to see how the sub-plane of ghosts is better than the animal sub-plane. Although, Dhammapāla’s list varies depending on the school of Buddhism. Some say there are happy ghosts as well.

The only practical comment the Buddha made about ghosts is found in the Vinaya Piṭaka. He created a rule that outlawed bhikkhus from frightening other bhikkhus with stories of ghosts.

Discussion

Intriguingly, whilst these ghosts are not physically material, they still suffer for want of sensuous experience. Clearly, it is an exotic type of physics that supports the ghostly condition.

Parabolically speaking, ghost stories serve to affirm life after this one.

World Of Woe – Titans (Asura)

The sub-plane of Titans is a better place to live than the ghost sub-plane, but not better than the human sub-plane.

There isn’t a great deal in the Pāli Canon about Asuras. They appear in the early Vedas, as a contingent of gods, who are constantly at war with other gods. In the Rig Veda, the asura Vritra (the Enveloper), was a dragon/serpent type of creature, so huge that his coils surrounded mountains, and his head reached the sky. He was the bringer of a drought, which wasted the world, until he was eventually defeated by Indra, and the waters released.

In the Pāli canon the Asuras are warriors. The Cūḷataṇhāsankhaya Suttaṃ (MN37) tells us Sakka, ruler of the Gods of the Thirty-three, had just returned from a victorious war against the Asura. In the Janavasabha Suttaṃ, we learn that the Asura were decreasing in number (DN18:13).

Interestingly, despite marshalling armies, and killing so many sentient beings, Sakka is a stream winner (DN21:2.7).

Discussion

The word Asura is often translated into English as Titan, which is a name for a creature of war found in Greek mythology. The plane of the Titans is qualitatively distant from the plane occupied by the Gods of The Thirty-three. The Titans are in the Worlds of Woe while the Gods of the 33 are in the But they are not so physically distant that they cannot go to war with each other. Again one pauses to contemplate whether such creatures are real, revisionist, or in some part both. Whatever the case, we are asked to accept the principle that there is a sub-plane of existence dedicated to creatures of war.

The teaching of Asuras is an affirmation that there is life after this one, and that the echelons of existence are qualitatively varied.

Most Are Reborn In A World Of Woe

This is a particularly poignant teaching. It compares the tears we have shed during our many lives against the quantity of water in the oceans of the world. The discourse then goes further and says that we have shed more tears than water in all the oceans crying over the death of just past mothers. It then makes the same claim for the death of past fathers, and again for past brothers, and so forth for sisters, sons, daughters, relatives, loss of wealth and being separated from the agreeable. And similarly, we have suckled more mothers’ milk than the oceans’ waters, and we have shed bones enough to pile higher than the tallest mountain. Such is the extent of saṃsāra and the number of lives we have lived. It is difficult to meet with someone who has not been our mother, father, brother, sister, son, daughter, or relative in a past life (SN II 15:4-10).

In the Mahāvagga, the Buddha tells us something else equally as poignant. When passing away from any level of existence, whether it be from the heavens, human, ghost, animal, or the hells, most beings are reborn in the worlds of woe (SN V:102-131). Ordinarily, we move through the planes of existence like discarded sticks because we have not understood the Four Noble Truths.

Discussion

As most beings are reborn in a world of woe, we might assume these worlds have been filling up, and the heavens emptying, for quite some time. However, this is not necessarily the case. To maintain an equilibrium between existences, the rate at which denizens of the woeful worlds get out, and into heaven(s) will equal the rate of gods entering the woeful worlds. A god may live just the one long life in a heaven, while a denizen in a world of woe, particularly animals, would live countless such lives.

Now let’s look at the three ways to get out of a world of woe, as found in the Pāli Canon.

• Purgation by suffering in the hells (MN129, MN130).
• Earning merit (MN129) .
• Release at the end of the eon (MN58:3).

The Bālāpaṇḍita and Devadūta discourses tell us that the hells are purgative, as beings are not released until their demerit is spent. But if purgation by suffering worked, why are most denizens of hell(s) reborn in a world of woe?

And what of merit earning, how much merit is possible in the worlds of woe? The fact is, there is no level of existence noted for its opportunity to earn merit. The worlds of woe are characteristic for their absence of opportunity to earn merit, and the heavenly planes are too delightful. In heaven(s) kindly deeds are redundant, and renunciation practices hard to justify. Annurudha tells us the Gods of Radiance are like flies. Wherever they go, they indulge in delight. This tells us they are accruing much dark kamma. The human sub-plane might well provide the best opportunities for earning merit. The best of those being the four Noble truths (DN22:1).

Many people will find something unfair about being succoured in heaven, only for this to lead directly to rebirth in a woeful world? By what reasonable mechanism can we understand this? To explain this, I have a simile of my own. Consider a dog chewing on a fleshy bone. This ordinarily delights a dog. Anyone who understands canine nature, knows never to try to remove a bone from a dog, as its delight will instantaneously change to aggression. The same psychological dynamic can be used to help explain the gods’ descent from heaven(s). After a long period of easy succour, and little or no merit earned, the gods die. But their attachment to delight does not die. Just as the dog’s delight turns negative in an instant, so too can the delight of the gods. And with no merit (capacity of self-transcendence), their energy (survival instinct/volition/kamma) goes where it can express itself (energy must flow; Buddhist law of thermodynamics).

This mechanism works in the opposite direction, of course. Whatever conviction, virtues, learning, generosity and discernment, a dying person embodies when falling away from this life, the same qualities re-arise with him in the next realm (AN11.12). Thus, learning the skill of self-transcendence – the apperceptive gaze – is worth making part of one’s skills base.

So, what does the ending of an aeon involve? Unfortunately, the Pāli Canon is not clear about what constitutes an aeon. We will make a study of what the Canon has to say about the aeon in Chapter 13, Buddhist Cosmogeny.

Where Are Bodhisattas Reborn?

It is just as well the reader is warned at the outset, that details in the Pāli Canon regarding rebirth destinations, and the number of times a noble being can be reborn, is a veritable mess, and does nothing to inspire confidence.

We read once-returners (sakadāgāmi) are reborn in the Tusita Heavens. In his previous and penultimate life, bodhisatta Siddhatta Gotama, died a sakadāgāmi human, before passing into the Tusita Heavens (MN123:3-6). Layman Anāthapindika also died a sakadāgāmi (MN143:20).

The anāgāmi (non-returner) is not born by womb or egg, but spontaneously in the Pure Abodes. These heavens are a collection of five sub-sub-planes, in the fine-material level of existence. The anāgāmi lives out his last life and attains permanent liberation in the Pure Abodes. Hence the term non-returnee. The Pure Abodes are the most refined level of existence open to the Noble being, and are within the reach of laypeople (MN68:18). A notable non-returnee layman was Citta (SNIV 41:9). The achievement of non-returner is possible by practicing the four Satipaṭṭhāna for seven days, and in some cases less (MN10:46. DN22).

The destinations of stream winners are not so clear-cut. Ānanda tells how he had heard the Buddha say, that according to the Gods of the Thirty-three , as many as 2,400 people from the county of Magadha alone, had passed over as stream winners (DN18:27). King Bimbisara was one such stream winner and was reborn as a yakkha by the name of Janavasabha, amongst the Gods of the 33 (DN18:10). Sakka, the leader of the Gods of the Thirty-three , was also a stream winner (DN21:2.7) .

The Ratana Suttaṃ says: “Those who realized the Noble Truths … even though they may be exceedingly heedless, they will not take an eighth existence (in the realm of sense spheres) (KN Snp2:1).” However, the translator here has added qualifying brackets, suggesting that it is possible to be reborn additionally as a Once-Returner, or Non-Returner, thereby suggesting a possible total of eight or nine more lives.

The Sukhin Suttaṃ (AN 3,8) and the Samudda Suttaṃ (Snp13:8) discourses are more certain, and state that seven lives is the maximum a Noble being can live. But the Sukhin discourse qualifies this and adds, “Having transmigrated and wandered on among two or three good families, he will put an end to stress.” So the Sukhin discourse says that not all seven lives are necessarily lived.

The jhāna Sutta is not at all consistent with the above three discourses (AN4:123). It has its own take on locations and number of remaining lives. It tells us there are other locations where Noble beings can reappear, additional to the Gods of the Thirty-Three and Pure Abodes. It tells us, there is a case where someone … attains first jhānaṃ and dwells there … he is eager and is pleased with his successes. He often dwells steadfast in first jhānaṃ. When this person dies, he may reappear in the Brahma Retinue … If he is a Noble disciple of the Buddha-Dhamma he becomes liberated upon passing away from that sub-plane. But an ordinary person, a run-of-the-mill person, will upon passing on from the Brahma world reappear in a world of woe.

And similarly, those who enter second jhāna and dwell there often, reappear after death with the Abhassara devas. A disciple of the Buddha-Dhamma becomes liberated upon passing on from that sub-plane. But the run-of-the-mill person upon leaving that sub-plane will reappear in a world of woe.

And similarly, those who enter third jhāna, and dwell there often, reappear after death with the Subhakinha devas. A disciple of the Buddha-Dhamma becomes liberated upon passing on from that sub-plane. But the run-of-the-mill person upon leaving that sub-plane will reappear in a world of woe.

And similarly, those who enter fourth jhāna, and dwell there often, reappear after death with the Vehapphala devas. A disciple of the Buddha-Dhamma becomes liberated upon passing on from that sub-plane. But the run-of-the-mill person upon leaving that sub-plane will reappear in a world of woe.

Discussion

So according to the jhāna Discourse, all noble beings are living their penultimate lives. That makes all noble beings non-returners, while the Sukhin discourse, says, partially noble beings can become fully emancipated after three, four, five, or six lives, and the Samudda Suttaṃ, which says seven lives, and the Ratana Suttaṃ which suggests nine lives.

The above discourses offer no overall consistency in rebirth locations either.

Clearly, the above teachings were not written by the same persons, and leave one with little or no faith in respect of what the Pāli Canon has to say about the Cosmos and Nobility. We are left to consider the afterlife for ourselves, and whether we have been reading mahayanisms.

There is an altogether different conundrum arising regarding rebirth in refined locations. As Anuruddha pointed out, at the level of the gods of radiance, there is a lack of wisdom amongst them. He compares them to flies that take delight wherever they land, thinking they are eternal. Personal experience tells us we are unlikely to pursue the renunciative struggle when succour is readily available.

This begs several questions: what happens to Nobles reborn at the finer end of the Rupa Loka? What does their day consist of? What inspires them to continue practicing? Indeed, the Vehapphala devas mentioned in the jhāna discourse are beings without consciousness. How do they practice mindfulness?

It is reasonable that beings might start their Dhamma practice in the lower/middle Sugati, as existence there contains both succour and suffering. We know Yakkhas and Gandhabbas, are creatures that abide in the Heaven of the Gods Of The Thirty-Three, and some take an interest in the Dhamma (DN18: 29, DN32:2). Chief god Sakka, however, learned his Dhamma by visiting the Earth and listening to the Buddha teach (MN37:3). Indeed, the Buddha is remembered as a teacher of gods, as well as men.

And a final question: why does the Jhāna discourse say, only Buddhist Nobles become liberated? We read in the Mahāparanibbāna discourse that any teaching or discipline that contains the principles found in the Four Noble Truths leads to Nobility and the making of arahants (DN16:5.27).

The fine details surrounding Noble rebirth are so inconsistent, they cannot be believed. This mess is explained by the rise of Mahāyanaism, and its attempt to turn an empirical teaching into a religion of faith. This doesn’t destroy the principle of rebirth, or the concept of Nobility, but we must, for the sake of our intellectual integrity, be aware of what is reasonable.

It is unlikely that the Stream Winner will necessarily live exactly seven lives. In fact, the Buddha was quite clear about the indeterminate duration for realising Nibbāna. It may take years, months, or days (DN22:6) or even hours; ‘Being instructed in the evening he might arrive at destination in the morning; being instructed in the morning he might arrive at destination in the evening (MN85:55-59).’

Sāriputta, Mogallana, and even Angulimāla, originally followed disciplines other than the Buddha’s. Were they born noble, or did they go from ordinary to arahant whilst following Buddha-Dhamma?

Dīghanakha the sectarian was not born noble, as he became a stream winner, and without being accepted as part of the Saṅgha (MN74:15).

The existence of suffering in the lower Sugati, and the presence of a renunciant tradition, as well as kamma and luck, tell us it should be possible to excel in one’s practice there, and thereby reduce potential reappearances.

In principle, a point of no return is possible, just as running down the fire in a steam engine will eventually bring it to a stop. Who knows when and where, but it will stop for sure.

The Buddhist Universe is largely the same as the Vedic one, as is the urbanites ethical code. The difference being the nature of salvation.

Around 800BC, the Vedic universe consisted of three spheres of being (Loka) Earth, Atmosphere and Outer Space. The furthest away being the Svarga loka (Brahma loka) which translates as ‘bright world’. Svah means Sun ; Brahmani means shining (Upan. CU4.16.5).

The Vedic and Buddhist Cosmoses differ only in the finer details. The Buddhist Sugati consists of habitable worlds BEYOND the travelling distance of the light of our Sun and Moon (MN123) (see above, The Sense Sphere Kama Loka). These are the ‘Bright Worlds’, the stars we see at night which going by these ancient descriptions, they believed were lit up by the light of our Sun and Moon.

The Vedic three lokas contain 11 gods in each, totalling 33 gods altogether. The Buddhist three lokas (material, fine material and immaterial) has 32 sub-planes, each with their own type of god.

The Vedic Svarga loka later grew in sophistication. It came to consist of seven pleasant planes of existences paralleled by seven unpleasant planes of existence. We may now reasonably assume deep space is part of the Vedic Universe, and not just visible space.

The Vedic ideal has always been immortality in the Brahma Loka. People are reborn according to how ethically they lead their lives (BU4.4.5-7; 6.2.16 CU5.3.2-4). Any failure and the atman (soul) returns to Earth to take its kamma with the proper humility .

But there were many, later, Hindu developments that elaborate, sometimes in great detail, over how many times rebirth can occur, and how many sphere’s of being there are. Some traditions claim hundreds of thousands of lives and multiverses before Mukti is realised (see Chapter 17 and Four Negations of True-Dhamma, View 4).

In later chapters, we will see how even an ancient, pan European Christian sect, also had a teaching of nobility, and limited rebirths on Earth, before union with God was possible.

This brief study of ancient historical developments in cosmology leaves this author, for one, wondering if one faith was simply trying to outdo the other.

Ancient cosmology is no more credible than today’s science fiction, which it has to be acknowledged, contains much reality and continues to proven itself to be compellingly prescient.

It isn’t surprising that so many inconsistencies are found in the Buddhist canon. The Buddha’s teachings were re-presentations of the prevailing beliefs in a new context. Even though later revisionists have complicated things, strictly speaking, this shouldn’t matter, if those doing the teaching properly understand Buddha-Dhamma.

The Tibetans liken Buddha-Dhamma to a diamond. When placed on a red cloth it looks red. When placed on a blue cloth it looks blue. Either way, it is remains the same diamond.

Another point of interest regarding cross-canonical similarities is the frequency with which the number seven appears. Anyone with an electronic version of this book might care to use the ‘find’ function, to search for the number ‘seven’. It occurs with a curious frequency. The same exercise can be done with an electronic version of the bible, or concordance. It too exalts the number seven.

A full discussion of this is not possible here, but I favour a reasonable explanation coming from astro-theology, and the seven days of the week . After all, a week is determined by the heavens (where the gods lives).

Vedic cosmology paid great importance to the Pole Star and the Milky Way .

Fabled and Fantastic Beings

There are several supernatural/extraterrestrial creatures found in the Pāli Canon: Mara, Gandabbha, Garuḍā, Naga and Yakkha. They are all pre-empted by the Vedas. Whatever the true origins of these creatures, their inclusion in the Pāli Canon still leaves one asking, what practical part they play in an empirical, renunciant’s practice? They are not, in fact, essential, but they do serve to support the idea of multiple afterlives and many echelons of existence; which is not unreasonable.

Māra the Evil One

Māra is a Hindu female deity of death. A similar god Māyā is found in the Bhagavad-Gita, as the goddess of illusory energy, ‘the energy of the Supreme Living Lord that deludes living entities and their spiritual nature .’ Māra is found in the Pāli Canon in male form, as the Tempter, and the Evil One. Like Māyā he deludes people into delighting in sensuous gratification. Māra has hordes of lesser māras . They too are insidious, manipulative, and invisible entities that cause people to be reckless and indulge in greed, hatred and delusion. Māras do not to have a realm of their own.

Most Buddhist discourses treat Mara as a real entity, but we can take it from the Buddha’s own lips, Mara is better understood as a fabulous personification of greed, hatred and delusion. The venerable Rādha consulted the Buddha on what Māra really was.

In other words, Mara is not a discreet entity, but a fabulous personification of our survival instincts; the mind-body mechanism (nama-rupa). Mara is the energy that colours our consciousness, via the imaginative faculties and causes suffering to oneself and others.

Here is another teaching that puts Mara in perspective.

Being in meditation is to be beyond Māra the tempter:

Readers of the Pāli Canon should bear in mind that despite the above teachings, many discourses present Māra as real. This could be explained as the work of revisionists appealing to Brahmin culture.

Mahāmoggallāna’s Previous Life As A Mara

There was an occasion when the Venerable Moggallāna was interrupted during walking meditation by a heavy feeling in his belly. He sat down to scrutinise it, and discovered it was Mara the Evil One.

But Moggallāna did know who it was, and also what Māra was thinking. Moggallāna called out to the evil one, who left via Moggallāna’s mouth, and stood against the door bar . Moggallāna then gave Māra a salutary warning, in the form of an account of a past life in which they both featured.

In the very distant past, Moggallāna was also once a Māra called Dusi. He had a sister called Kāli and the Evil One (who had just emerged from Moggallāna’s belly) was Kāli’s son, no less. The Buddha of that era was Kakusandha, and like all Buddha’s he had two chief disciples, Vidhura and Sañjīva.

There was an occasion when Dusi had possessed the minds of some brahmin householders, and got them to revile a group of virtuous bhikkhus. They insulted the bhikkhus, likening them to an owl on a branch preying on a mouse, to a jackal on a bank hunting fish, a cat waiting for a mouse by an ally drain or in rubbish, and a donkey by a dustbin waiting to be loaded. Moggallāna explains to Mara that most of those householders he had possessed, reappeared upon death in a state of deprivation, unhappy destinations, perdition and even in Hell (13).

Moggallāna continued. The Buddha Kakusandha informed the bhikkhus that Dusi was behind the householders’ mischief, and he instructed them to defend themselves by practicing the Brahma Viharas. Noticing something was wrong, Mara changed tack in order to regain the upper hand. He repossessed the householders by getting them to respect, revere and venerate the bhikkhus. Moggallāna explained that most of those householders upon death appeared in happy destinations, and even in heaven (17). Again, Budddha Kakusandha informed the bhikkhus of what was really happening, and this time recommended a place of seclusion to contemplate foulness of the body, perceiving repulsiveness of nutrient, disenchantment with the world, and impermanence in all formations (19).

The following morning Buddha Kakusandha went for alms, accompanied with his assistant Vidhura. All the while, Dusi was observing them. He took possession of a boy, who then picked up a stone and struck Vidhura on the head with it. Despite being badly cut, Vidhura remained unfazed. Buddha Kakusandha thought differently, “This Mara knows no bounds”, and gave Dusi the stare of an elephant (presumably by staring at the boy). Dusi ‘fell from that place and reappeared in the Great Hell (21)’ .

Moggallāna then tells Mara what he experienced as Dusi in the Great Hell. He says, the end of a one-thousand-year period of roasting was punctuated by the wardens of hell, who would pierce his body with stakes of steel both front and back, such that they met in his heart. He roasted in the Great Hell for many millennia, and then in an auxiliary Great Hell for ten thousand years. During this time he had the body of a man, and the head of a fish. The pain he experienced in the latter hell he called Emerging-From-Ripening (MN50:23).

Discussion

The problem with complex fables is that they often contain some awkward implications. How is it that Mara was able to possess people to behave negatively, and positively, and yet it was the possessed who were sent hell-wards and heaven-wards? Why wasn’t Mara the recipient of the kammic outcome of his own volition?

And whilst Buddha Kakusandha’s assistant behaved according to Dhamma-discipline, and took his stoning with equanimity, surprisingly, Buddha Kakusandha takes revenge by affectively murdering Māra! Clearly, the above teaching is fable.

This fable teaches respect for the law of kamma.

Ghandabbha, Garuḍā, Naga and Yakkha

Gandabbha, Garuḍā, Naga and Yakkha, are four species of beings that make occasional appearances in the discourses. Some are able to appear on more than one sub-plane.

The Gandabbha (Sr. gandharva) is found in early Vedic literature. In Hinduism, there is a gandharva god, who is the guardian of soma, a drink that thwarts death. In the Atharva Veda, they are half human and half bird. In the later Mahābhārata, they also play the role of celestial musicians to the gods. In the Pāli Canon the term Gandabbha is used for two distinct beings. One is a celestial musician , found in the lower heavens (DN18:20), and known to appreciate the Buddha's teaching (DN19:62). The other is the entity about to enter the womb of a human female at conception (MN38:30 MN93:19).

A Garuḍā is a large bird found in the Vedic Bhagavad-Gita. It was a garudā that carried Lord Visnu . In the Pāli Canon they are also giant birds that live in the Sugati.

A Naga is a snake, also found in vedic literature, associated with wisdom. In the Pāli Canon they also exist in the Sugati. Garuḍā and Nagas are constantly at war with each other (DN20:11). This is not unlike the relationship birds and snakes have on Earth. Many birds, of course, prey on snakes.

A Yakkha is a non descript entity found in the lower heavens, but which may appear on Earth to summarily threaten the occasional luckless victim with execution by thunderbolt. Some approve of the Dhamma (DN18:29) and some do not (DN32:2).

Gandhabba, Naga, and Yakkha all get a mention in Pasadika Suttaṃ (DN29:5-9).

Discussion

One wonders why the Buddha used so much Vedic mythology, considering his teaching of the siṃsapa leaves, in which he tells us, he only taught that which was necessary for unbinding (SN V56:31). There is of course didactic value in fable telling, so it is important we recognise fable when we meet it. In the teaching to Rādha, he is quiet explicit, when teaching that Māra the Evil One and his hordes are fable.

On another occasion he tells us that an ancient belief of a hell under the ocean (interestingly also found in the Bible Rev 20:13) is not to be taken as fact but fable. He explains how we are to understand this teaching.

Notice, the Buddha doesn’t reject the teaching out of hand, but works with it. He takes the imagery of a bottomless abyss, and treats it as a comparison for painful bodily feelings. This gives it parabolic meaning in the context of renunciation, thereby turning what was notional into something sensible. The bottomless abyss represents our potential to suffer. A foothold represents insight and a capacity for the renunciant way.

It is difficult to see how the Buddha could have avoided not working with Vedic teachings. It was, after all, the intellectual paradigm of the day, and his graduated didactic was to start with the very terms people addressed him with. As one must expect, these were frequently Vedic.

It is easy to see how a revisionist scribe could have easily turned the Buddha’s humanistic teaching into a supernatural one, and thereby make the Pāli Canon competitive with the Vedas, and biblical doctrine.