REBIRTH AND THE ECHELONS OF EXISTENCE

The Structure of the Universe

By ‘three kinds of being’, the Buddha means three universally fundamental levels of existence. Existences are further distinguished into planes, realms, and spheres, although translators and writers do not always use these terms consistently. Hereon in we shall use the terms existence, planes, sub-planes and sub-sub-planes. These aren’t elegant terms but they will make our analysis of the Buddhist universe simpler (see table 21).

The three fundamental levels of existence are distinguished by their quality of fineness. The finer the existence, the less suffering there is (MN97:30-31). The grossest is the sense-sphere existence (Kamma-loka), less gross is the fine-material existence (Rupa-loka), and then the most refined is the immaterial existence (Arupa-loka).

The grossest planes are the Worlds of Woe. Immediately above these are the good destinations, starting with the human sub-plane. Above humans are the lower gods, who are very similar to humans. They go to war (MN37), have the capacity to grieve (DN16:6.11) and listen to music (MN37:7). Higher up the spectrum, some planes of existence are so fine, the gods are immaterial, and no more substantial than a mental process¹. Some boarder on oblivion, and some are even without consciousness.

Table 21 illustrates the echelons of existence as discreet levels, but in reality the differences are not always so apparent (MN127:10). Everyone has some appreciation of this, even if it is only between the human and animal sub-planes. Qualitatively speaking, some pets have better lives than some humans, although buddhistically speaking, no one in their right mind would wish to be reborn as an animal.

Interestingly, the gods have a propensity to shine (DN19:1). The venerable Anuruddha explains that when the gods of radiance assemble together, their individual radiances become indistinguishable, as is the case when several lamps with flames of different colours and sizes, are brought together (MN127:10-11). Layman Sudatta (Anāthapindika) was reborn in the comparatively lowly Tusita heavens, but was still able to light up the Grove where the Buddha and Ānanda were staying (MN143:20). There seems to be a direct relationship between luminosity of a god, and the finesse of its existence (DN18:12-17, DN20:7-8). We will consider the physics of the lower planes more, when we look at miracles.

The Sense Sphere – Kama-loka

The Sense Sphere Existence is the grossest of the three levels of existence and consists of two planes, divided into 11 sub-planes. The four lowest sub-planes are the Worlds of Woe. These are the Hell(s), Animal Realm, Realm Of Ghosts (sometimes called the Shades), and the Titans (Asura). Were it not for the Ghost sub-plane, the sense sphere existence could be reasonably called the Material Existence.

The seven upper sub-planes of the material existence are the good destinations (despite the wars there). They start with the human sub-plane, which is the grossest of the good destinations. All planes above the human plane are considered heavenly, and their denizens godly. But a god in the Buddhist Pāli Canon is not always an entity who has power over others, but simply one living a heavenly existence. In fact, the lower heavens are more like Earth than one might first imagine:

The Thousandfold World System consists of the material existence, which includes the Sun, Earth and Moon and the Fine Material Sphere (see table 21). It is a remarkable teaching for its baring on astrobiology. It is saying the Earth, Sun and Moon are part of the Thousandfold World System, which lies within BEYOND the travelling distance of the light of our Sun and Moon. This includes the near galaxy³, which we see at night and the very worlds some of us will be reborn on. Some of these worlds may have been observed and catalogued amongst known exo-planets.

But none of the descriptions of the Thousandfold World System should be taken too literally. The number 1000 denotes an inconceivably large number, in the same way we might use the term googolplex. The enumerations of moons, suns, kings, mountains, continents and oceans form a metaphor for habitable, earth-like, conditions, harbouring life we can recognise.

Despite these Earthly conditions, the beings therein have some fundamental physical differences compared to humans and the Earth. The more refined the level of existence, the longer its gods live. The venerable Kassapa, explains to prince Pāyāsi the life spans of some gods.

One of the first things to notice is that this teaching is not from the Buddha’s mouth. Notwithstanding this, the Gods of the Thirty-three live on average the equivalent of thirty-six million Earth years⁵. This makes a considerable difference between life on Earth and the Gods of the Thirty-three.

In fact, the physics of the Gods of the Thirty-three are about as removed from the Earth, as they are from the Fine Material Sphere of the Brahma world. Kassapa explains, just as humans cannot see the Gods of the Thirty-three with the physical eye⁶, the Gods of the Thirty-three cannot see the Brahma in the fine-material plane. There was an occasion when Brahma Sanankumara, one of the five sons of the MahāBrahma, appeared to the Gods of the Thirty-three, by assuming a grosser form, because his natural appearance is not visible to their eyes (DN18.15-17).

Despite the difference in longevity between humans and the Gods of the Thirty-three, there are many similarities we can recognise. The Cūḷataṇhāsankhaya Suttaṃ tells us Sakka had palaces built, and listened to music (MN37:7). As the ruler of the Gods of the Thirty-three, he was victorious in war against the Asura (Titans). The Janavasabha Suttaṃ (DN18:13) even tells us the Asura were decreasing in number.

So, the picture drawn from above is that, in our galaxy there is a myriad of inhabitable worlds. When we look out into the night sky, we are looking at the very heavens we may be reborn into. However, the denizens of the grosser worlds cannot see those of finer worlds without use of the divine eye.

Regardless of how fine these worlds may be, the heavens are part of the conditioned universe (saṃsāra) and so ‘change takes place, transformation takes place’. That is to say, they are not eternal.

The Fine-Material Existence – Rupa-loka

The fine-material sphere is comprised of four planes, each one distinguished into three sub-planes (see table 21). All fine-material and immaterial sub-planes of existence are correlated to a level of meditational achievement. The fine-material sub-planes are described as follows.

The Lowest sub-plane of the fine-material existence is occupied by MahāBrahma’s Assembly (Brahma Parisajja). Rebirth into this sub-plane requires meditation is developed only to an inferior level of first jhānaṃ.

The middle sub-plane is occupied by the Ministers of MahāBrahma (Brahma Purohita). Rebirth into this sub-plane requires a middling development of first jhānaṃ.

In the highest sub-plane of the fine-material existence are the Mahābrahmas (Great Gods). Rebirth at this level requires a superior development of first jhāna. Bakka Brahma abides at this level⁷ (MN49:2)

Beings in the first plane of the fine-material sphere can live up to one aeon⁸.

The next plane in the fine-material existence, contains the sub-planes of the Gods Of Radiance. On the first sub-plane, abide the Gods Of Limited (Defiled) Radiance. To be reborn at this level requires an inferior development of second jhānaṃ.

On the middle sub-plane, are the Gods Of Immeasurable Radiance, and rebirth here requires a middling development of second jhānaṃ.

On the highest sub-plane, are the Gods Of Streaming Radiance, and rebirth here requires a superior development of second jhānaṃ.

The Gods Of Radiance can live up to two aeons⁹.

The next plane in the fine-material existence are the Gods Of Glory, sometimes referred to as the Auras (This English word is not to be confused with Asuras meaning Titans). On the first sub-plane are the Gods Of Limited Glory, and rebirth here requires an inferior development of third jhānaṃ.

On the second sub-plane are the Gods Of Immeasurable Glory, and rebirth here requires a middling development of third jhānaṃ.

On the third sub-plane are the Gods Of Refulgent Glory, and rebirth here requires a superior development of third jhānaṃ.

The Gods Of Glory can live up to 4 aeons.

The highest plane in the fine-material existence is a little more complex, as it contains three sub-planes, the highest of which is distinguished into five sub-sub-planes.

The lowest sub-planes contain the Gods Of Great Fruit. The middle sub-plane is the Realm Of Mindless Beings. Beings abiding in these two sub-planes are not conscious. The third, and finest, sub-plane is divided into five sub-sub-planes, consisting of, the Gods Of The Pure Abodes, the Aviha Gods (The Durable Realm), Attapa Gods (The Serene Realm), Sudassa Gods (The Beautiful Realm), Sudassi Gods (The clear-sighted Realm), Akanittha Gods (The Highest Realm). Rebirth into these five sub-sub-planes is commensurate with fourth jhānaṃ¹⁰. They are the rebirth destinations of the non-returner.

These gods can live up to 500 aeons¹¹.

The Immaterial Existence – Arupa-loka

The next fundamental level of existence is immaterial, and is comprised of four sub-planes, each one commensurate with an immaterial absorption. The gods at these levels may live for tens of thousands of aeons. Bodhisatta are not reborn into the immaterial levels of existence.

Table 24 The Echelons of Existence

Reappearance According to Purity of Consciousness

It is possible to use meditation to determine one’s reappearance in other echelons of existence, when departing this life. The Venerable Abhiya Kaccāna asked how is it that some come to be reborn amongst the sub-plane of Gods of Defiled Radiance, and some are reborn in the sub-plane of the Gods Of Immeasurable Radiance (MN127:13). Anuruddha responds by taking Kaccāna’s attention in step-wise manner through the stages of kasina meditation.

Anuruddha continued his elucidation, graduating his examples: one village … two or three villages … one major kingdom … two or three major kingdoms … an area the size of the earth bound by oceans. Kaccāna is told, “This is the cause and reason.” In other words, the level of exaltation in meditation determines why someone is reborn on a particular sub-plane. The more exalted the meditation, the more exalted the rebirth destination.

Kaccāna then asked why is it that someone is able to enjoy exalted meditation in the first place. Anuruddha gives simile, using the flame of a lamp burning impure oil and an impure wick.

Sloth and torpor, restlessness and remorse, are two of the five hindrances. This makes Kaccāna’s teaching less than entirely consistent with ideal descriptions of second jhānaṃ. All the jhāna are defined by an absence of hindrances. But in reality, the meditator will find that having gone through bodily tranquilisation, some of the hindrances still intermittently appear, although they are weak and ephemeral. This kind of interference varies during lower jhāna, and is what is referred to by inferior, middling and superior development of jhāna.

Kaccana then casts doubt on Anuruddha’s authority:

In other words, Kaccana had been wondering if Anuruddha spoke from experience, or was just repeating what he had heard. Anuruddha tells Kaccana he finds his words offensive, but he confirmed he spoke from direct experience (17).

Reappearance According to Choice

A remarkable point implied by Anuruddha’s lesson is that we can selectively target a rebirth destination by developing consciousness during the throes of death. Below the Buddha details how to consciously target a place of rebirth:

The same teaching is given to Mahānama (SN V 55:21).

The Buddha also teaches recollecting one’s own good character as part of a practice for nurturing good qualities. Whatever ‘conviction, virtues, learning, generosity and discernment’, a dying person embodied when falling away from this life, the same qualities re-arise with him in the next realm (AN11.12).

By contemplating the character of the gods in the material and fine-material sphere, one can determine where one reappears after death. This is true for anyone; not just Buddhists (SN V 55:54).

No Reappearance

The Sankhārupapatti Sutta (MN120) teaches, through the disciplines of faith, virtue, learning, generosity and wisdom, we can reappear on any sub-plane, or sub-sub-plane, in any godly existence (19-36). Despite being able to choose and target his place of rebirth, a Buddhist renunciant does not aspire to reappear anywhere, nor nowhere for that matter. Aspiring to be born on a heavenly sub-plane is known as the fifth shackle (MN16:12). His endeavours are towards the ending of all rebirth.

See table 18 for Deliverance by Mind and Deliverance by Knowledge.

In the Dhātuvibhaṅga Suttaṃ, the Buddha says, ‘On the dissolution of the body, with the ending of life, all that is felt, not being delighted in, will become cool right here (MN140:23-24)’.

Discussion

We should not think that the five disciplines lead to the heavenly planes because it pleases the gods there. The five disciplines are used to contain, and refine, how we express our energy. Buddhist thermodynamics says energy must flow, and the Pāli Canon teaches refined energy tends towards being reborn in a refined place, and gross energy in a gross place.

But for the Buddhist renunciant, the five disciplines are primarily training for meditation and ultimately liberation from all existences. To reappear nowhere requires the ability to maintain perfect equanimity throughout the throes of death, if all is to ‘become cool’. This technique we know as the apperceptive gaze. If all that the mind can bring up during the throes of death are kept cool, then the outcome should be Parinibbāna.

This is heartening for the householder. Maintaining purity of consciousness throughout the dying process will yield Parinibbāna in the last moments of life. But it would be unwise not to take the opportunity beforehand, and become adept in the apperceptive gaze and right perspective.

This possibility will prompt some householders to consider dedicating their dying months to the practice of meditation. Other things being equal, such as the responsibility of running a household handed to someone else, a supportive environment, and some previous training, permanent liberation, is realistic for a dying (ex)householder.

Last Rites of Passage

Buddhists don’t usually use the phrase last rites of passage, but if there is anything in the Buddhist canon that can be called last rites of passage, it is a guided meditation in the throes of death.

There was an occasion when Mahānama mentioned to the Buddha that he had not heard from the Buddha’s own lips how a layman should minister to a dying layman. The Buddha’s response was that a wise layman should console the dying with the Four Consolations. He then described how this should be done.

The dying layman should be reminded of his confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saṅgha. He should be told he may feel fortified by his long practice of the noble virtues that lead to concentration. He should be asked, if he is worried about any member of his family, such as his mother and father. If he is, he should be told, ‘But good sir, you are subject to death. Whether you are anxious about your mother and father or not, you will die anyway. So please abandon your anxiety over your mother and father (SNV.55:54).’ And similarly, the dying man should be asked about the rest of his family and dear ones, and accordingly reminded of the proper wisdom.

He should be asked, if he is anxious about the five chords of human pleasure, and whether he harbours any. He should be reminded that celestial sensual pleasure is more sublime than human sensual pleasure, and told to focus on the Four Great Kings. Once his mind is focused on the Four Great Kings, similarly, he should be told that the adjacent Tāvatiṃsa devas (Gods of the Thirty-three) are yet more sublime, and so he should focus on the Tāvatiṃsa devas. In this graduated manner, the dying layman is guided through all the sub-planes of the lower gods and Brahma loka.

Buddhist last rites are an affirmation of cosmology and right perspective, and an example of how important perspective and volition are.

But the contents of a last rite of passage varies, depending on whether the person is a bhikkhu, a layman, or Brahmin. The above example was for the Buddhist layman, and Brahmin, whose destinations are the heavens. To understand why a Buddhist layman is directed towards heaven, we should recall, the Buddha taught Vaccha that he was aware of no householder who attained Nibbāna without first abandoning the fetter of householdship (MN71:11-12).

This does not mean the householder/layman is not a noble being, destined for Nibbāna in a subsequent life. Nor does it mean a dying layman cannot be given the same last rites of passage as a bhikkhu. It is a question of whether or not a dying person has had the training to receive higher Dhamma.

We will now look at several documented instances in the Pāli Canon of bhikkhus who ministered to the dying.

Sudatta Receives Last Rites

Chief disciple Sāriputta delivered the last rites of passage to the respected layman Sudatta, a merchant and generous patron to the Saṅgha¹². He is also referred to in the discourses as Anāthapiṇḍika¹³, a name which means philanthropist. Anāthapiṇḍika was neither bhikkhu nor ordinary householder, but an upāsako¹⁴. He dressed in white to denote celibacy, and took on more precepts than the householder but not as many as a bhikkhu. Celibate laity dressing in white was a common practice that predates Buddhism but which fits into the Buddhist scheme of things.

Anāthapiṇḍika was in his final hours of life, when he instructed a messenger to go and pay respects first to the Buddha, then to Sāriputta, and request that Sāriputta visits him out of compassion. Both Sāriputta and Ānanda attended and found Anāthapindika in serious pain and worsening. Sāriputta gave Anāthapindika a comprehensive guided contemplation, not on the structure of the godly planes, as one might expect for laity, but on impermanence.

The above taught Anāthapiṇḍika not to indulge anything arising from the internal bases, as they will impinge upon, and adulterate, an otherwise pure consciousness.

Next Sāriputta teaches the very same thing in the context of the six external bases.

Next Sāriputta teaches Anāthapiṇḍika the same thing but in the context of the six classes of consciousness.

Next Sāriputta teaches Anāthapiṇḍika the same thing but in the context of the six classes of contact.

Next Sāriputta teaches Anāthapiṇḍika the same thing but in the context of classes of feeling.

Next Sāriputta teaches Anāthapiṇḍika the same thing but in the context of the six elements.

Next Sāriputta teaches Anāthapiṇḍika the same thing but in the context of the aggregate of five.

Next Sāriputta teaches Anāthapiṇḍika the same thing but in the context of the immaterial absorptions.

At this point Sudatta began to weep.

Sāriputta and Ānanda left, and soon after Anāthapiṇḍika died and reappeared in the Tusita Heavens. That evening, as the Buddha and Ānanda sat in Jeta’s Grove, a young god of beautiful appearance, illuminated the whole grove, and addressed the Buddha with a stanza. It extolled the Buddha’s teaching as unsurpassed, and then it acknowledged Sāriputta’s attainment as unsurpassable. The Buddha approved of the stanza and the young god disappeared. Ānanda exclaimed that the young god was surely Anāthapindika. The Buddha replied, “Good, good, Ānanda! As far as reasoning goes you have drawn the right conclusion. That young god was Anāthapindika, no one else (MN143:20).”

Discussion

Between chief disciple Sāriputta and upāsako Anāthapiṇḍika, a new precedent was set. We learn that higher Dhamma was not being taught to upāsakos or laity, yet Sāriputta taught the higher Dhamma of impermanence, instead of the brahma viharas, as the Buddha commended to Mahānāma.

So why would this be? Firstly, Mahānāma would not be aware of any higher Dhamma. Secondly, Sāriputta on the other hand did, and knew Anāthapiṇḍika did not aspire to the Brahmin ideal of being born in the retinue of MahāBrahma, but sort Nibbāna. Anāthapiṇḍika was an upāsako. He dressed in white to denote celibacy and his commitment to liberate himself. Sāriputta clearly thought layman Anāthapiṇḍika’s efforts were best placed in Vipassanā, and making things cool in the throes of death. Being in the throes of death is a unique moment. If a dying householder/upāsako has taken time out to learn that which is difficult to understand, and train in that which is difficult to attain, it would be a missed opportunity not to seize the moment. After all, at this juncture, householdership is spent.

It is interesting that Ānanda called the young god Anāthapindika. But why did the Buddha qualify Ānanda by saying his reasoning was correct? This suggests there that something else to be considered. I suggest, Ānanda’s ‘reasoning’ was correct, as the young god ‘was’ once Anāthapiṇḍika. Ānanda’s reasoning would have been incorrect to think of the young god as still being Anāthapiṇḍika¹⁵.

We might think the two are the same, as the young god clearly remembered being Anāthapiṇḍika. But we should recall the Buddha’s lesson to Sati son of a fisherman, where he taught that consciousness is dependent on conditions (Chapter 10 subtitle Self-Identity Views/Uncertainty).

Brahmin Dhānañjāni Receives Last Rites

Sāriputta also gave last rites to the dying Brahmin Dhānañjāni (MN97:30). As Dhānañjāni lay on his deathbed, he sent a messenger to ask Sāriputta to attend out of compassion. Sāriputta obliged. Because Dhānañjāni was a brahmin, his aspiration was not to attain PariNibbāna, but to be reborn in the highest of the Brahma abodes, with the MahāBrahmā.

Sāriputta started by questioning Dhānañjāni on his knowledge of the sense sphere existence and fine-material existence. He asks, which is better, the sub-plane of Animals or sub-plane of Ghosts? He answered correctly by saying the sub-plane of Ghosts. Sāriputta asks, which is the better to live in, the sub-plane of Ghosts or sub-plane of Humans? He answers correctly, saying the sub-plane of Humans. And likewise, Sāriputta guided Dhānañjāni stepwise through all the sub-planes of the material sphere. However, his guided contemplation did not go through all three sub-plane in the Brahma loka. It merely acknowledged that the Brahma lokas were better than the previous sub-planes. Instead, Sāriputta gave Dhānañjāni four guided meditations of the final stage, from each of the four Brahma Viharas. Having done this, Sāriputta left, and soon afterwards Dhānañjāni died. The Buddha, due to his psychic powers, was aware that the procedure had been less than ideal. He told the bhikkhus with him that Sāriputta had left while there was still work to be done, as Dhānañjāni had reappeared at the lowest level on the Brahma sub-planes. On his return, the Buddha asked Sāriputta why he left so early. Sāriputta said he thought he had done all that was necessary. The Buddha told him Dhānañjāni had reappeared in the lowest level on the Brahma sub-planes.

Discussion

One might wonder why Sāriputta gave Dhānañjāni four guided meditations from the final stage of the immeasurable Deliverance Of Mind stage (Brahma Vihāra). Like any samadhi meditation, it can be used to bring about superior third jhānaṃ, which is commensurate with the Beautiful Black Gods, and far more than Dhānañjāni needed (see table 21 The Echelons of Existence). Dhānañjāni sort rebirth in the highest level of the Brahma Loka, which requires only superior first jhānaṃ. Perhaps it would have been better if Sāriputta’s stepwise questioning had included the three levels of the Brahma planes, instead of the final stage of the four Brahmā vihāra.

There is another curiosity arising from what we have studied. Brahmin Dhānañjāni was not a noble being yet was born in a higher, more refined sub-plane than upāsako Anāthapiṇḍika, who was a noble being. The reason for this can be explained by their different spiritual aspirations. Anāthapiṇḍika was a noble being and would continue his work towards Nibbāna in the Tusita heavens for a limited period as a once returner. But Dhānañjāni aspired to reside in the realms of the Mahābrahma, where he believed he would enjoy Moksha/Mukti/Krisna-consciousness. This is God-Consciousness. It is synonymity with the MahāBrahma and the ultimate protection from suffering for eternity. Brahmins didn’t accept the Buddha’s teaching that all is transient.

Noble beings following the Buddha’s prescription do not aspire towards any type of existence. They are born in the Sugati, or the Pure Abodes. The Pure Abodes however are much more refined than the Sugati and Brahma Loka. This raises a question about how Noble beings in the Pure Abodes spend their days. Just what is it that inspires them to maintain their practice?

Last Rites for Channa and Vakkali

There was an occasion when Sāriputta and Cunda went to see the dying Venerable Channa who warned them that he was going to dispatch himself with a knife in due course due to unbearable pain (MN144:7). They gave Channa a guided meditation on impermanence and the merit of non-reappearance and then left. Channa then slit his own throat with a knife. The Buddha later said Channa had died blamelessly and did not reappear anywhere.

The venerable Vakkali received last rites from the Buddha. That is, at least indirectly, as tradition maintains two devatas (earth spirits) were used to convey the Buddha’s teaching on impermanence. Like Channa, Vakkali was also in a lot of pain, and also took his own life by slitting his throat. Vakkali was not reborn anywhere but became fully liberated (SN III 22:87).

Discussion

Euthanasia was not uncommon in ancient India. Even so, we should understand that Channa and Vakkali were likely warrior caste, of the Sakyan clan, who had a reputation for being exceptionally hard men. The Sakyans are described as being as “strong as Teak (DN3:1.15)”. The Pāli word Saka means Teak, which is a very hard wood.

It should be understood that self-termination is not part of the Buddha-Dhamma, although it was not outlawed. Buddhist renunciative practice is about the permanent ending of suffering, to which all else is secondary. It should be noted however that both of the above examples were self-administered (as distinct from someone else’s volition), and both attained permanent liberation. They were both confident of their mastery over their own consciousness, and were fully aware of what, and why, they did what they did. Both were confident they would remain self-transcended, throughout the death process. Thus, both can be buddhistically described as dying blamelessly¹⁶ (MN144:13).

Who can blame them, anyway?

Worlds Of Woe – Hell

Buddhist texts often write of Hell, when in fact there are several hells described in the Pāli Canon¹⁷.

The Buddha then asked the bhikkhus to “suppose” a robber had been caught and hauled up in front of a king for judgement (8). The king orders the man to be pierced by a hundred spears in the morning. This is duly done and in the afternoon the king enquires after the robber. He is told the man is still alive. The king orders the man to be struck by another hundred spears at noon. And, for a second time, the robber continues to live. The king orders the same punishment to be repeated in the evening. And, again the robber continues to live.

Moving on from the above supposition, the Buddha then gives examples of punishment in hell.

He says the wardens of hell drive red hot stakes through the man’s hands, feet and belly (10). Next, the wardens of hell throw him to the ground and pare him with axes (11). Next, the wardens of hell hang him from his feet and pare him with adezes¹⁸ (12). Next, the wardens of hell harness him to a chariot and drag him back and forth over burning, blazing, glowing ground (13). Next, the wardens of hell make him climb up and down a great mound of coals that are burning, blazing, and glowing (14). Next, the wardens of hell hang him upside down and plunge him into a red hot cauldron. He is cooked in a swirl of froth, and sired up and down and across (15). Next, the wardens of hell throw him into the Great Hell. This is an iron room, cubed in shape, with sides of one hundred leagues, and closed off in all directions, except for four doors on each side. The whole structure is heated until it glows (16). But, the man cannot die until the demerit that took him there runs its course (10-15).

In the Devadūta discourse (MN130), the Buddha says he actually witnessed the above hell. He teaches that just as clearly as a man with good eyesight, looking at two houses, watching people come and go, so too, he saw with his divine vision, beings passing through the cycle of birth and death, inferior and superior, fair and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate (2). The Buddha then describes hell(s) in considerably more detail.

He tells the bhikkhus that when a man appears in Hell the wardens seize him by the arm and present him to (god) king Yāma. They announce the allegations against the man, and then wait upon the kings response.

King Yāma then cross-examines him about a second divine messenger.

The King continues his interrogation, asking the man if he has seen the third divine messenger, an afflicted adult, suffering, gravely ill, lying fouled in his on excrement and urine, and who has to be physically assisted (6). King Yāma asks if he has seen the fourth divine messenger, a robber, caught and subjected to many kinds of tortures, such as flogging and beheading (7). And lastly, he asks the man if he has seen a fifth divine messenger, which is a corpse, laying dead for a day, two days, three days, bloated, livid, and oozing with matter (8). To each question, the man submitted the same responses.

Despite the defendant’s honesty, there is no record of mitigation. The God-King Yāma finds the man culpable of negligence. The wardens then take the man and torture him with red-hot stakes, as described above, before taking him to the Great Hell.

The Great Hell is the sealed iron room. In this discourse, we are told its range is a ‘full hundred leagues’, with an iron roof and floor (16). Flames jet out from the four walls, and reach the opposite walls: south wall to north wall, and north wall to south, and west to east, and east to west wall. This iron glows hot and the man feels the agony of this, and yet he does not die while ever his demerit is not spent. Eventually, the time arrives at the end of a long period when the eastern door opens. The man sprints towards it. As he does so, his feet start to burn away, outer skin, inner skin, muscles, sinews, and bones turn to smoke. This is true even when his feet are not touching the ground (17-18). It takes a time for him to reach the door¹⁹, but upon reaching the exit, the door closes. The man feels racking, piercing feelings, and yet he does not die while ever his demerit is still not spent. The man tries to escape via the western, northern, and southern doors, but with the same vane outcome. Eventually, the eastern door opens again, and undergoing the same sufferings and agonies as previously, the man finally makes his exit (19). But relief, if any, is short lived. He simply moves out of the Great Hell and into the Hell Of Excrement. In the excrement are needle-mouthed creatures, which bore through his skin into the bone and marrow. He feels painful racking feelings, but there is no respite from this suffering while ever his demerit is still not spent (20).

Next, he falls into the Hell of Hot Embers, which is immediately adjacent to the Hell Of Excrement. He feels painful racking feelings, but there is no respite from suffering while ever his demerit is still unspent (21).

Immediately adjacent is the Wood Of Simbali Trees. Here the trees grow a league high and bristle with thorns six finger-breaths long, burning, blazing and glowing. The wardens make him climb up and down those trees. He feels painful racking feelings. Yet he does not die until his demerit is exhausted (22).

Immediately adjacent is the Wood Of Sword-leaf Trees. The leaves are stirred by wind and they cut a man’s hands, feet, ears, and nose. He feels painful racking feelings. Yet he does not die until his demerit is exhausted (23).

Immediately adjacent is the great river of caustic water, which he falls into. He is swept downstream and even up stream. He feels painful racking feelings. Yet he does not die until his demerit is exhausted (24).

The wardens pull him out with a hook and ask, “Good man what do you want?” He says, “I am hungry, venerable sirs.” Then the wardens prise open his mouth with red-hot iron tongs, which are burning blazing and glowing, and then they pour into his mouth molten copper, blazing, burning and glowing. Yet he does not die until his demerit is exhausted (25).

Next, the wardens ask, “Good man what do you want?” He says, “I am thirsty, venerable sirs.” Then the wardens prise open his mouth with red-hot tongs, burning blazing and glowing, and they pour into his mouth a molten copper, blazing, burning and glowing. It burns his mouth, throat, stomach, and passes into his intestine and mesentery. He feels painful racking feelings. Yet he does not die until his demerit is exhausted (26).

The wardens then throw him back into the Great Hell (27).

Discussion

Let us investigate the descriptions of the hells for reasonableness on scientific and doctrinal grounds.

Even though the descriptions of hell are a challenge of faith, we should not entirely dismiss the possibility of hellish places of rebirth. Most people believe there is life after death, in which case, it is worthwhile asking, what form life will take there. Whatever form it takes, a credible afterlife has to be physically and, or mentally sensible. Some sensible questions about the next world are, will there be cause and effect at the physical level, such as gravity, electricity and nuclear power? Will there be suffering and joy? Will we eat, sleep, defecate, bathe, have sex? Will life be competitive? Will we have to go to work? Will there be hierarchy, authority and punishment? Without these elements, there is little left to comprehend, let alone believe. Without some answers to these questions, our belief in an afterlife is no better than notional.

Whether or not the Hell(s) are part of the Thousandfold World System, lying within the travelling distance of the light from our Sun and Moon, Buddhist Cosmology places them in the same sense sphere as the Earth and lower heavens (Kama Loka). We can expect therefore some similarities between the physics across the Kama Loka. Physicists work on the basis that there are no privileged frames of reference. By this, they mean there are some physical principles, which are fundamental throughout the universe. For example, pure water freezes at zero degrees centigrade at one atmosphere of pressure. The speed of light is constant in a constant medium. Because there are no privileged frames of reference, then this is true throughout the universe. This is reasonable, if we are talking about the same universe.

But the near Cosmos (The Thousand Fold System), as described in the Pāli Canon, presents us with some fundamentally different physics, to the Earth’s. The denizens of hell do not necessarily die from injury (MN50:22) and the lower gods live far longer than the flesh and blood beings of Earth.

So just how reasonable are the sufferings of the hells? Let’s compare them with suffering on Earth, and produce some measure of credibility. We know that war is replete with atrocities, such as mass losses of life, torture and inequity. The history of religion is no different. The Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición 1492 -1501 (Spanish Inquisition), the witch hunts of early modern Europe, militant Islam and Sharia law, are culpable of avoidable human slaughter. The punitive tariff in regular Sharia law varies between countries but can include: stoning, amputation of fingers, hands, feet, nose, eyes and head, lynching, crushing (by toppled wall), and throwing people off the highest perch (buildings and cliffs). Fascism and communism, have also demonstrated no shortage of people ready to perpetrate the most heinous of acts in the name of a higher purpose and authority.

In addition to these manmade sufferings, there are natural ones. There are illnesses that cause long-term suffering, flesh-burrowing parasites, flesh-eating bacteria, and plants that emit toxins and acids.

On balance then, the hellish sufferings of the Bālāpaṇḍita and Devadūta discourses are mostly reality on Earth, and therefore cannot be entirely dismissed as part of an afterlife. The differences between Earth and hell(s) that attract questions are the longevity of life and not being able to die from injury.

This is a good place to point out that rebirth is not necessarily reincarnation. An easy way to remember the difference is that the syllable ‘carn’, comes from carnal meaning flesh. Not all beings reincarnate, that is, are reborn with a fleshy body. Some are reborn as fine material or even immaterial beings.

Let’s look at some more issues with the above two hellish teachings. Yāma is in fact a Vedic God of Death²⁰, usually depicted with blue skin and several pairs of arms. He holds a club and a noose and rides an ox. His ancestry is found in the Upanishads, where he is one of five gods. Yama is the god of the southern quarter (area), the Sun is the god of the eastern quarter, Varuṇa is the god of the western quarter, the Moon is the god of the northern quarter, and fire is the god of the fixed quarter (the Zenith) (Brhādaraṇyaka 3.9.21). The Buddhist canon has four Yama god-kings, one at each of the four gates of hell²¹, but they also reside in the Sugati. Presenting only one Yama god in the Bālāpaṇḍita and Devadūta discourses makes the Buddhist death process appear all the more similar to the judgemental Abrahamic god, who also puts us on trial.

But the concept of a judgemental god does not tally with sensible thinking. Why would the Yama God want to spend the aeon subjecting people to misery? And, where does he find the time to see everyone? Like the perverse Abrahamic god, Yama has little regard for the principle of proportionality when administering punishment; just what could a robber steal to warrant such inordinate treatment as the hells?

A query must be raised about the number of divine messengers²². There are four divine messengers in the Biography of Siddhatta Gotama; an old man, a sick man, a dead man and a renunciant (see Introduction). But king Yama cites five messengers: a vulnerable baby, an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a robber.

The robber messenger certainly adds to the need for a ruthless and punitive god and thereby mirrors biblical teaching.

Not only does a judgemental god give the Pāli Canon more affinity with the Bible, it also makes Buddhism all the more appealing to the Brahmin, who already accepts the concept of a Yama god.

Another serious issue from the above is purification by suffering, which is not a Buddhist teaching. The concept of being purified of dark kamma by undergoing a period of suffering in hell (purgation), is inconsistent with the Mahāsaccaka discourse. This explicitly teaches struggle and pain alone do not bring enlightenment. Only withdrawal from delighting in the sensuous (which may or may not be painful) can purify. Also, the Introduction of the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Suttaṃ states there is only one way to purification and that is through the four foundations of mindfulness²³.

Purification by suffering is not a biblical teaching either. Obeisance to God is enough to get into the Eternal City. Purgation was inducted into the church around the eleventh century²⁴. It taught there is a place called Purgatory. It is an intermediate place between heaven and hell, where suffering can make the difference between entering the Eternal City or not. Purgatory is also not consistent with the book of Revelations, which says, after death everyone lies in a slumber to be awoken on judgement day.

Some churches still prescribe acts of penitence as a purgative. These usually take the form of a set of prayers, prescribed by a priest after confession. Anciently, there were more serious forms of penitence, such as extreme fasting and self-flagellation²⁵.

The inclusion of purification by suffering in the Pāli Canon suggests it was still being revised well after the Buddha’s death²⁶.

Eternal hell does not exist for Buddhists, Jews and Christians, although Islam teaches it does. The Bible threatens cowards traitors, perverts, murderers, the immoral, magicians, idolaters and liars with death in lake of sulphur (the ‘second death²⁷’ Rev20:13-14, Rev21:8). Only the Devil, the Beast and the false prophet will suffer fire and sulphur forever (Rev20:10).

So we see, that after subtracting the theatre used to convey the moral, we find that what started as an unreasonable faith teaching of hell(s), is not entirely unreasonable for those who believe in an after-life. Taken as parable, the Bālāpaṇḍita and Devadūta discourses are partially, reasonable faith teachings. They teach there may be suffering in future lives, and that there is a principle of moral cause and effect working universally. We therefore behave mindlessly at our peril.

By contrast, the Abrahamic paradigm, attributes our comeuppance to God, who requires our deference if we wish to continue to live.

Whatever we choose to believe, for the sake of our integrity, we need to be clear about what and why we believe. In the very least, know that we don’t know why we believe what we do.

Dhānañjāni Gets A Warning MN97

Whilst wandering in the Southern Hills with a large retinue of bhikkhus, the Venerable Sāriputta encountered a bhikkhu who had spent the rainy seasons in Rajagaha. This was the very place where the Buddha had also sojourned the rainy season. Sāriputta asked after the Blessed One, and then the Saṅgha, and then he enquired after a certain brahmin Dhānañjāni, who lived at the Taṇdulapāla Gates. Sāriputta heard how the layman Dhānañjāni had become negligent by turning to unskilful ways to support his life.

He had developed a scam whereby he procured goods under false pretences. He claimed before brahmin householders that he required goods in the name of the king, and before the king, he claimed he required goods for brahmin householders. But, in both cases Dhānañjāni was the beneficiary. His wife, who had faith, and who came from a clan with faith, had died. Since then, Dhānañjāni had taken a wife without faith, from a clan that did not have faith.

Sāriputta left the retinue of bhikkhus he was with and wandered in stages towards Rajagaha, where he met up with Dhānañjāni. Sāriputta asked if he was diligent in his layman’s practice. Dhānañjāni responded with a question of his own. How could he be diligent with parents, a wife, children, slaves, servants and workers to look after, and then there are duties towards friends, companions, kinsmen, relatives, guests, departed ancestors, deities and kings, as well as to himself?

Sāriputta then began his interrogation. He started by asking Dhānañjāni to suppose that someone was dragged off by the wardens of hell, for behaving outside of the Dhamma-Discipline. Did he think that such a person could be excused his unrighteous behaviour by pleading he did what he did for his parent’s sake? And would his parents be able to free him by pleading with the warden “it was for our sake?” Dhānañjāni says such pleading would not be successful. Sāriputta underlines his point by asking the same two questions for each of the above mentioned beneficiaries: wife, children, slaves, servants, workers, friends, companions, kinsmen, relatives, guests, departed ancestors, deities and kings and Dhānañjāni himself. Dhānañjāni gives the same reply each time. Sāriputta then asks the same questions but phrased in the positive. “What do you think is better Dhānañjāni? Who is the better, one who for the sake of his parents behaves contrary to the Dhamma, or one, who for the sake of his parents, behaves righteously according to the Dhamma?” Dhānañjāni says, “one who for the sake of his parents behaves righteously according to the Dhamma.” And again, Sāriputta underlines the point by asking the same questions for each beneficiary, and Dhānañjāni gives the same response. Sāriputta reminded Dhānañjāni there was gainful and ethical work to be found (16). Dhānañjāni delighted by Sāriputta’s words then left.

Discussion

Dhānañjāni is an example of many who had faith in the efficacy of the Buddha’s teaching but was not seeking Nibbāna (MN97:30-38). As a brahmin he was seeking rebirth amongst the Brahma Retinue. Brahmins, like Buddhists, believe that attenuating and refining one’s grosser energies over the long term, secures rebirth in a finer existence.

But, there is an issue arising here. Brahmins believe their god, MahāBrahma, is eternal. Yet, when bhikkhu Sati, son of a fisherman, also held an eternalistic view, he was told he had done himself great harm. So, why don’t Brahmins do themselves great harm? Perhaps they do, but not immediately. By spurning the opportunity of realising Nibbāna, Dhānañjāni’s sojourn in heaven will end with rebirth in a world of woe; not because there was anything personal between him and the Buddha, but because all compounded things are transient, and that alone makes life indivisible from suffering (see below, Most Are Reborn In A World Of Woe).

It is interesting that Sāriputta did not attempt to convert Dhānañjāni. But then, telling someone their core belief will terminate with a world of woe would have been particularly difficult to support, when the way of the renunciant is so arduous. The fact is, the renunciant’s paradigm does not have to be fully appreciated by everyone who benefits from it.

How To Go To Hell

Some views are so pernicious they lead to hell.

In the above teaching we can identify three hellishly pernicious views. There is denying the recluse Gotama the Buddha experienced superhuman meditation, denying his knowledge and vision is worthy of noble ones, and asserting he derives his teaching exclusively from reasoning.

Discussion

But how could any of the above lead so assuredly to the hells? One might expect these terms from an angry and lonely god, but the Buddha never claimed to be anything other than mortal.

There are two threads of logic to consider here that are typical of the schismatic Pāli Canon. One teaching is practical and characteristic of early Buddhism and the other is of the later, fantastical Mahayana.

Based on the logic of the mahayanism of the Buddhist Eucharist; to reject the Buddha in person is to also reject the Dhamma, and therefore to preclude oneself the opportunity of Parinibbāna (and so, therefore, suffer the vicissitudes of fate). The other is the logic is from early Buddhist empiricism which says we have no need to even look at the Buddha. Indeed, he taught the unlovely practices. The dying Venerable Vakkali, said to the Buddha: “For a long time venerable sir, I have wanted to come to see the blessed one …”, the Buddha replied, “Enough, Vakkali! Why do you want to see this foul body? One who sees the Dhamma sees me; one who sees me sees the Dhamma (SN III 22.87).” It is even possible to realise Nobility, without even being a disciple of the Buddha (DN16:5.27).

The Dhamma is primary in importance. Those who would know the Buddha should realise the Dhamma.

Venerable Aṅgulimāla Avoids Hell

The following story is a lesson in how to avoid hell. Ahiṃsaka was the son a Brahmin priest and for a period was a brilliant and committed martial arts student. An envious co-student besmirched him, by lying to the principle of the college. He alleged Ahiṃsaka and the principle’s wife were having illicit liaisons. The principle believed this and contrived a plan to take revenge. Knowing Ahiṃsaka was passionately committed to a successful graduation, he required him to perform an extra task in order to earn his graduation. He asked Ahiṃsaka to cut off a finger from the right hand of a thousand people by way of an honorarium. Ahiṃsaka ruthlessly set about this task, making a habit of wearing his victims’ fingers around his neck. He soon became known as Aṅgulimāla (anguli = fingers + mālā = garland).

Aṅgulimāla was about to acquire his 1000th finger, from his mother no less, when he saw the Buddha walking in the distance. The Buddha had been warned he was in Aṅgulimāla’s territory, but chose to ignore this. He went specifically with a view to meeting Aṅgulimāla, who he knew had enough supporting conditions to become an Arahant. Their encounter proved miraculous, in more ways than one. Seeing the Buddha moving gracefully along in the distance, Aṅgulimāla set off in pursuit, repeatedly quickened his pace. But, he found he could not catch the Buddha, even though the Buddha all the while walked at his usual serene pace. Eventually, Aṅgulimāla became overawed and cried out “Stop recluse stop recluse”. To which the Buddha replied, “I have stopped.” Aṅgulimāla swiftly contemplated this cryptic response and realised his folly and fortune. He uttered the following verse.

Wandering by stages, the Buddha returned to the territory of King Pasenadi of Kosala, with Aṅgulimāla as his attendant. News spread to the King that Aṅgulimāla was in his realm, and so he set out with a posse of men, as far as the road went, and then by foot, until they met with the Buddha. They paid reverential salutations to the Buddha, who enquired after the King’s purpose. The king said he was looking for the bandit Aṅgulimāla. Minding the potential repercussions of this, the Buddha asked the King how would he treat Aṅgulimāla, if he were to see him with a shaved head, wearing saffron robes, and having become chaste, and virtuous of character? The king replied that he would pay him the traditional regards one does of a bhikkhu, such as homage and providing protection. The Buddha then extended an arm by way of indication and said, “Great King, this is Aṅgulimāla.” The King had quite a start, but was true to his word, and told Aṅgulimāla he may rest content.

Despite the Venerable Aṅgulimāla’s new life, all did not go without incident for him. One morning he went for alms round and was seriously assaulted with clods of earth, sticks and broken pottery. He returned weeping, with bleeding head wounds, his begging bowl broken, and his robes torn. He turned to the Buddha who gave him the following advice.

Aṅgulimāla did take it like a bhikkhu, and whilst meditating in solitude, he made the ultimate escape.

Discussion

There is something of the fabulous about the above, which we need to investigate. Some renderings of this story say Aṅgulimāla also murdered his victims, although losing a finger does not necessarily result in death. It would take complications to set in before this happened.

If he acquired one finger per day, it would have taken him just over two and half years to collect 999. A bone-dry finger weighs around 10 grams, so a thousand would weigh in at around 10 kilograms (22 Lbs). Some depictions portray him wearing these fingers around his neck, as a decorative garland. This would have been unlikely, as 22 Lbs is a heck of a weight to carry all the time, especially around the neck. Also, such a weight would require a very strong leather pouch, and a hefty strap, as desiccated fingers will not remain secure on a piece of chord for long.

But there is a practical teaching here. Even having committed mass murder, and having thought the unthinkable, such as killing the Buddha, and with a stay in hell pending, he was still able to realise Nibbāna. This teaching not only short-circuits the idea of having to face a judgemental god, but tells us that armed with the right insight, and resolve, it is possible to escape saṃsāra, regardless of one’s past.

There is also a miracle in this teaching, which we will evaluate along with others in the next chapter.

Devadatta Does Not Avoid Hell

Devadatta was a cousin of the Buddha, and they knew each other as children. Years later, Devadatta²⁸ took ordination in the Buddha’s discipline, and proved uniquely troublesome. He tried to usurp leadership of the Saṅgha, first by stealth and then by violence. He began by asking the Buddha to step up the rigor of the bhikkhus practices. He proposed:

• Monks should dwell all their lives in the forest.
• Monks should accept no invitations to meals, but live entirely on alms obtained by begging.
• Monks should wear only robes made of discarded rags and accept no robes from the laity.
• Monks should dwell at the foot of a tree and not under a roof.
• Monks should abstain completely from fish and flesh.

Whilst Devadatta’s suggestions don’t break any precepts, they increase the rigor of an already demanding practice. The Buddha refused to make these suggestions compulsory, but nor did he outlaw them. He left the initiative with individual monks.

Commentaries vary over the precise details of what happened next. The understanding I have been able to gather is that Devadatta seized the moment, and used the Buddha’s response to spread the allegation that the Buddha had become luxurious. For a while, he succeeded in gathering a following of new and old bhikkhus. But thanks to the eloquent intervention of the venerables Moggallāna and Sāriputa, most were persuaded to defer to the Tathagata’s wisdom.

Devadatta then employed archers to assassinate the Buddha. But, the first archer lost his will, simply upon seeing the elegant presence of the Buddha. He then listened to the Buddha teach, and took refuge in the Dhamma-discipline. In the meantime, the other archers wearied and departed.

Devadatta then made several attempts of his own to assassinate the Buddha. On one occasion, he rolled a large boulder down a hillside towards the Buddha. The boulder shattered, and some rocky shards impacted on the Buddha’s foot, causing some bleeding.

On another occasion, Devadatta got an elephant drunk, and after frightening it, let it loose to rampage down a narrow street through which the Buddha was walking. The Buddha becalmed the elephant with love.

The Buddha predicted Devadatta would go to hell for the rest of the aeon (MN58:3). Commentaries say Davadatta later regretted his actions, and in his final hours of life set out to find the Buddha and express his remorse. But, he was too late, and he died along the way.

Discussion

The above teachings contain some miracles the scientific minded will rightly find difficult to accept. Fortunately, to help deal with this, we can consult the Kevaddha Suttaṃ, which contains the criteria the Buddha used to describe what is acceptable as a Buddhist miracle. We will study this discourse and miracles in the next chapter.